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CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
OF WASHINGTON
YEAR BOOK No. 44
July 1, 1944— June 30, 1945
With Administrative Reports through December 14, 1945
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
WASHINGTON, D. C.
1945
THE LORD BALTIMORE PRESS, BALTIMORE, MARYLAND
CONTENTS
PAGES
Officers and Staff v— x
Organization, Plan, and Scope xi
Articles of Incorporation xii-xiv
By-Laws of the Institution xv— xviii
Abstract of Minutes of the Forty-seventh Meeting of the Board of
Trustees xix-xx
Report of the Executive Committee xxi-xxv
Report of Auditors xxvi-xxxiv
Report of the President /-/ /
Reports of Departmental Activities and Cooperative Studies
Astronomy
Mount Wilson Observatory i- 18
Terrestrial Sciences
Geophysical Laboratory 19- 20
Department of Terrestrial Magnetism 21- 57
Special Projects
Committee on Coordination of Cosmic-Ray Investigations 59- 63
S. E. Forbush and Isabelle Lange 60
Victor F. Hess 60— 61
S. A. KorfiE 61-62
Marcel Schein 62— 63
Biological Sciences
Division of Plant Biology 65— 87
Department of Embryology 89-101
Department of Genetics 103—147
Nutrition Laboratory 149-156
Special Projects
T. H. Morgan, Alfred H. Sturtevant, and Lilian V. Morgan 157-160
H. C. Sherman 160— 161
Historical Research
Division of Historical Research 163—186
Bibliography 187-188
Index 189-196
111
PRESIDENT AND TRUSTEES
*Thomas Barbour
James F. Bell
Robert Woods Bliss
Lindsay Bradford
Frederic A. Delano
Homer L. Ferguson
W. Cameron Forbes
Walter S. Gifford
Robert Woods Bliss
Vannevar Bush
PRESIDENT
Vannevar Bush
BOARD OF TRUSTEES
Walter S. Gifford, Chairman
Elihu Root, Jr., Vice-Chairman
Frederic A. Delano, Secretary
Herbert Hoover
Frank B. Jewett
Ernest O. Lawrence
Alfred L. Loomis
Roswell Miller
Henry S. Morgan
Seeley G. Mudd
Henning W. Prentis, Jr.
Executive Committee
Walter S. Gifford, Chairman
Frederic A. Delano
W. Cameron Forbes
Henry R. Shepley
Finance Committee
Frederic C. Walcott, Chairman
Elihu Root, Jr.
Henry R. Shepley
Richard P. Strong
Charles P. Taft
Juan T. Trippe
James W. Wadsworth
Frederic C. Walcott
Lewis H. Weed
Frederic C. Walcott
Lewis H. Weed
Lindsay Bradford
Henry S. Morgan
Henning W. Prentis, Jr.
Elihu Root, Jr.
Auditing Committee
Frederic A. Delano, Chairman
Homer L. Ferguson James W. Wadsworth
STANDING COMMITTEES FOR THE YEAR 1946
Committee on Astronomy
Herbert Hoover, Chairman
Roswell Miller Elihu Root, Jr.
Seeley G. Mudd Juan T. Trippe
Committee on Terrestrial Sciences
Frank B. Jewett, Chairman
Homer L. Ferguson Alfred L. Loomis
Ernest O. Lawrence Frederic C. Walcott
Committee on Biological Sciences
Lewis H. Weed, Chairman
*Thomas Barbour
James F. Bell
Frederic A. Delano
Henning W. Prentis, Jr.
Committee on Historical Research
Henry R. Shepley, Chairman
Robert Woods Bliss Charles P. Taft
Richard P. Strong James W. Wadsworth
* Deceased January 8, 1946.
V
FORMER PRESIDENTS AND TRUSTEES
PRESIDENTS
Daniel Coit Gilman, 1902-1904 Robert Simpson Woodward, 1904— 1920
John Campbell Merriam, President 1 921— 1938; President Emeritus 1939— 1945
TRUSTEES
Alexander Agassiz
George J. Baldwin
John S. Billings
Robert S. Brookings
John L. Cadwalader
William W. Campbell
John J. Carty
Whitefoord R. Cole
Cleveland H. Dodge
William E. Dodge
Charles P. Fenner
Simon Flexner
William N. Frew
Lyman J. Gage
Cass Gilbert
Frederick H. Gillett
Daniel C. Gilman
John Hay
Myron T. Herrick
Abram S. Hewitt
Henry L. Higginson
Ethan A. Hitchcock
Henry Hitchcock
William Wirt Howe
Charles L. Hutchinson
Walter A. Jessup
Samuel P. Langley
Charles A. Lindbergh
William Lindsay
Henry Cabot Lodge
Seth Low
1904-05
1925-27
1902—13
1910-29
1903-14
1929-38
1916—32
!925-34
1903-23
1902-03
1914—24
1910-14
1902—15
1902-12
1924-34
!924"35
1902—08
1902-05
1915-29
1902-03
1902-19
1902-09
1902—02
1903-09
1902—04
1938-44
1904-06
IQ34"39
1902—09
1914-24
1902—16
Wayne MacVeagh
Andrew J. Mellon
Darius O. Mills
S. Weir Mitchell
Andrew J. Montague
William W. Morrow
William Church Osborn
James Parmelee
Wm. Barclay Parsons
Stewart Paton
George W. Pepper
John J. Pershing
Henry S. Pritchett
Elihu Root
Julius Rosenwald
Martin A. Ryerson
Theobald Smith
John C. Spooner
William Benson Storey
William H. Taft
William S. Thayer
Charles D. Walcott
Henry P. Walcott
William H. Welch
Andrew D. White
Edward D. White
Henry White
George W. Wickersham
Robert S. Woodward
Carroll D. Wright
1902-07
1924-37
1902-09
1902-14
1907-35
1902—29
J927-34
1917-31
1907-32
1916-42
1914-19
J930-43
1906-36
1902-37
1929-31
1908-28
1914-34
1902-07
1924-39
1906-15
1929-32
1902—27
1910-24
1906-34
1902—03
1902-03
1913-27
1909-36
1905-24
1902—08
Besides the names enumerated above, the following were ex-officio members of the Board
of Trustees under the original charter, from the date of organization until April 28, 1904:
the President of the United States, the President of the Senate, the Speaker of the House
of Representatives, the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, the President of the
National Academy of Sciences.
VI
STAFF OF INVESTIGATORS FOR THE YEAR 1945
ASTRONOMY
Mount Wilson Observatory
Pasadena, California
Organized in 1904; George E. Hale, Director 1904-1923, Honorary Director 1923-1936; Walter S
Adams, Director 1 924-1 945.
Ira S. Bo wen, Director, January 1, 1946
Walter Baade
Harold D. Babcock
William H. Christie
Theodore Dunham, Jr.
Joseph O. Hickox
Edison Hoge
Edwin P. Hubble
Milton L. Humason
Alfred H. Joy
Robert B. King
Paul W. Merrill
Rudolph Minkowski
Seth B. Nicholson
Edison Pettit
Robert S. Richardson
Roscoe F. Sanford
fGuSTAF STROMBERG
Adriaan van Maanen
Olin C. Wilson
Ralph E. Wilson
TERRESTRIAL SCIENCES
Geophysical Laboratory
2801 Upton St., N.W., Washington, D. C.
Organized in 1906, opened in 1907; Arthur L. Day, Director 1909-1936
Leason H. Adams, Director
John S. Burlew
Joseph L. England
Ralph E. Gibson
Roy W. Goranson
Joseph W. Greig
Earl Ingerson
Frank C. Kracek
Orville H. Loeffler
*Herbert E. Merwin
George W. Morey
fELBURT F. OSBORN
Charles S. Piggot
Eugene Posnjak
Howard S. Roberts
John F. Schairer
Earnest S. Shepherd
George Tunell
William D. Urry
Emanuel G. Zies
Department of Terrestrial Magnetism
$241 Broad Branch Road, N.W., Washington, D. C.
Organized in 1904; Louis A. Bauer, Director 1 904-1 929
John A. Fleming, Director
Oliver H. Gish, Assistant Director
Lloyd V. Berkner
Edwin J. Chernosky
Dean B. Cowie
Scott E. Forbush
Albert A. Giesecke, Jr.
George K. Green
Lawrence R. Hafstad
Norman P. Heydenburg
Ellis A. Johnson
Henry F. Johnston
Mark W. Jones
Paul G. Ledig
* Retired in 1945.
t Resigned in 1945.
Alvin G. McNish
Wilfred C. Parkinson
Richard B. Roberts
William J. Rooney
Walter E. Scott
Stuart L. Seaton
Kenneth L. Sherman
William F. Steiner
Oscar W. Torreson
Merle A. Tuve
Ernest H. Vestine
George R. Wait
Harry W. Wells
vii
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
Division of Plant Biology
Central Laboratory , Stanford University, California
Desert Laboratory, opened in 1903, became headquarters of Department of Botanical Research in 1905.
Name changed to Laboratory for Plant Physiology in 1923; reorganized in 1928 as Division of Plant
Biology, including Ecology.
Herman A. Spoehr, Chairman
Jens C. Clausen
Garrett J. Hardin
William M. Hiesey
David D. Keck
Winston M. Manning
•j-Emmett V. Martin
Harold W. Milner
*FoRREST SHREVE
James H. C. Smith
Harold H. Strain
Department of Embryology
Wolfe and Madison Streets, Baltimore, Maryland
Organized in 1914; Franklin P. Mall, Director 191 4-19 17; George L. Streeter, Director 191 8-1 940
George W. Corner, Director
Robert K. Burns
Louis B. Flexner
Chester H. Heuser, Curator of the
Embryological Collection
Margaret R. Lewis
Samuel R. M. Reynolds
Joseph Schiller, Research Associate
Walter S. Wilde
Department of Genetics
Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, New Yor\
Station for Experimental Evolution, opened in 1904, combined with Eugenics Record Office in 1921 to
form Department of Genetics. Charles B. Davenport, Director 1904-1934; Albert F. Blakeslee, Director
I935-I94I-
Milislav Demerec, Director
Ugo Fano
Berwind P. Kaufmann
Edwin C. MacDowell
Barbara McClintock
f Harry E. Warmke
Research Associates
John J. Biesele
Margaret R. MacDonald
S. G. Stephens
Nutrition Laboratory
2g Black] an Street, Boston, Massachusetts
Organized in 1907, opened in 1908; Francis G. Benedict, Director 1 907-1 937
Thorne M. Carpenter, Director V. Coropatchinsky
Activities discontinued January 1, 1946
* Retired in 1945.
t Resigned in 1945.
Vlll
HISTORICAL RESEARCH
Division of Historical Research
io Frisbie Place, Cambridge, Massachusetts
Department of Historical Research organized in 1903; Andrew C. McLaughlin, Director 1 903-1 905,
J. Franklin Jameson, Director 1 905-1 928. In 1930 this Department was incorporated as the Section of
United States History in a new Division of Historical Research.
Alfred V. Kidder, Chairman
Section of Aboriginal American History
Sylvanus G. Morley
Earl H. Morris
Harry E. D. Pollock
Tatiana Proskouriakoff -
Karl Ruppert
Anna O. Shepard
Edwin M. Shook
A. Ledyard Smith
Robert E. Smith
Gustav Stromsvik
Sol Tax
J. Eric S. Thompson
Section of Post-Columbian American History
Eleanor B. Adams
Robert S. Chamberlain
Ralph L. Roys
France V. Scholes
*Leo F. Stock
Section of the History of Science
George Sarton
Alexander Pogo
RESEARCH ASSOCIATES
Research Associates Engaged in Post-Retirement Studies
Albert F. Blakeslee, Genetics
Frederick H. Seares, Astronomy
George L. Streeter, Embryology
Research Associates Connected with Other Institutions
V. Bjerknes (University of Oslo), Meteorology
Edward L. Bowles (Massachusetts Institute of Technology), Physics
Joseph C. Boyce (New York University), Physics
Ralph W. Chaney (University of California), Paleobotany
A. H. Compton (University of Chicago), Physics
Th. Dobzhansky (Columbia University), Genetics
Frank T. Gucker, Jr. (Northwestern University), Chemistry
Ross G. Harrison (Yale University), Biology
Arthur T. Hertig (Boston Lying-in Hospital), Embryology
Victor F. Hess (Fordham University), Physics
Thomas H. Johnson (Bartol Research Foundation), Physics
S. A. Korff (Bartol Research Foundation), Physics
E. A. Lowe (The Institute for Advanced Study), Paleography
Robert A. Millikan (California Institute of Technology), Physics
fT. H. Morgan (California Institute of Technology), Biology
Walter H. Newhouse (Massachusetts Institute of Technology), Geophysics
Robert Redfield (University of Chicago), Anthropology
Henry N. Russell (Princeton University), Astronomy
H. C. Sherman (Columbia University), Nutrition
Joel Stebbins (University of Wisconsin) , Astronomy
* Retired in 1945.
t Deceased.
ix
OFFICES OF ADMINISTRATION
Office of the President
Vannevar Bush, President
Walter M. Gilbert, Executive Officer
Samuel Callaway, President's Secretary
Office of Publications and Public Relations
Frederick G. Fassett, Jr., Director
Ailene J. Bauer, Assistant to the Director
Dorothy R. Swift, Editor
Office of the Bursar
Earle B. Biesecker, Bursar
J. Stanley Lingebach, Assistant Bursar
Investment Office {New Yor\ City)
Parker Monroe, Investment Officer
Richard F. F. Nichols, Assistant Investment Officer
ORGANIZATION, PLAN, AND SCOPE
The Carnegie Institution of Washington was founded by Andrew Carnegie,
January 28, 1902, when he gave to a board of trustees an endowment of registered
bonds of the par value of ten million dollars. To this fund an addition of two
million dollars was made by Mr. Carnegie on December 10, 1907, and a further
addition of ten million dollars was made by him on January 19, 191 1. Further-
more, the income of a reserve fund of about three million dollars, accumulated
in accordance with the founder's specifications in 191 1, is now available for general
use, and in recent years a total of ten million dollars has been paid by the Carnegie
Corporation of New York as increase to the Endowment Fund of the Institution.
The Institution was originally organized under the laws of the District of Columbia
and incorporated as the Carnegie Institution, articles of incorporation having been
executed on January 4, 1902. The Institution was reincorporated, however, by
an act of the Congress of the United States, approved April 28, 1904, under the title
of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. (See existing Articles of Incorporation
on following pages.)
Organization under the new Articles of Incorporation was effected May 18, 1904,
and the Institution was placed under the control of a board of twenty-four trustees,
all of whom had been members of the original corporation. The trustees meet
annually in December to consider the affairs of the Institution in general, the progress
of work already undertaken, and the initiation of new projects, and to make
the necessary appropriations for the ensuing year. During the intervals between
the meetings of the trustees the affairs of the Institution are conducted by an
Executive Committee chosen by and from the Board of Trustees and acting through
the President of the Institution as chief executive officer.
The Articles of Incorporation of the Institution declare in general "that the
objects of the corporation shall be to encourage, in the broadest and most liberal
manner, investigation, research, and discovery, and the application of knowledge
to the improvement of mankind."
The Institution is essentially an operating organization. It attempts to advance
fundamental research in fields not normally covered by the activities of other agencies,
and to concentrate its attention upon specific problems, with the idea of shifting
attack from time to time to meet the more pressing needs of research as they develop
with increase of knowledge. Some of these problems require the collaboration
of several investigators, special equipment, and continuous effort. Many close relations
exist among activities of the Institution, and a type of organization representing
investigations in astronomy, in terrestrial sciences, in biological sciences, and in
historical research has been effected. Conference groups on various subjects have
played a part in bringing new vision and new methods to bear upon many problems.
Constant efforts are made to facilitate interpretation and application of results of
research activities of the Institution, and an Office of Publications and Public
Relations provides means for appropriate publication.
XI
ARTICLES OF INCORPORATION
Public No. 260. An Act to incorporate the Carnegie Institution of Washington.
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of
America in Congress assembled, That the persons following being persons who are
now trustees of the Carnegie Institution, namely, Alexander Agassiz, John S. Billings,
John L. Cadwalader, Cleveland H. Dodge, William N. Frew, Lyman J. Gage,
Daniel C. Gilman, John Hay, Henry L. Higginson, William Wirt Howe, Charles L.
Hutchinson, Samuel P. Langley, William Lindsay, Seth Low, Wayne MacVeagh,
Darius O. Mills, S. Weir Mitchell, William W. Morrow, Ethan A. Hitchcock,
Elihu Root, John C. Spooner, Andrew D. White, Charles D. Walcott, Carroll D.
Wright, their associates and successors, duly chosen, are hereby incorporated and
declared to be a body corporate by the name of the Carnegie Institution of Wash-
ington and by that name shall be known and have perpetual succession, with the
powers, limitations, and restrictions herein contained.
Sec. 2. That the objects of the corporation shall be to encourage, in the broadest
and most liberal manner, investigation, research, and discovery, and the application
of knowledge to the improvement of mankind; and in particular —
(a) To conduct, endow, and assist investigation in any department of science,
literature, or art, and to this end to cooperate with governments, universities, colleges,
technical schools, learned societies, and individuals.
(b) To appoint committees of experts to direct special lines of research.
(c) To publish and distribute documents.
(d) To conduct lectures, hold meetings, and acquire and maintain a library.
(e) To purchase such property, real or personal, and construct such building or
buildings as may be necessary to carry on the work of the corporation.
(f) In general, to do and perform all things necessary to promote the objects
of the institution, with full power, however, to the trustees hereinafter appointed
and their successors from time to time to modify the conditions and regulations
under which the work shall be carried on, so as to secure the application of the
funds in the manner best adapted to the conditions of the time, provided that the
objects of the corporation shall at all times be among the foregoing or kindred thereto.
Sec. 3. That the direction and management of the affairs of the corporation and
the control and disposal of its property and funds shall be vested in a board of trustees,
twenty-two in number, to be composed of the following individuals: Alexander
Agassiz, John S. Billings, John L. Cadwalader, Cleveland H. Dodge, William N.
Frew, Lyman J. Gage, Daniel C. Gilman, John Hay, Henry L. Higginson, William
Wirt Howe, Charles L. Hutchinson, Samuel P. Langley, William Lindsay, Seth
Low, Wayne MacVeagh, Darius O. Mills, S. Weir Mitchell, William W. Morrow,
Ethan A. Hitchcoc\, Elihu Root, John C. Spooner, Andrew D. White, Charles D.
Walcott, Carroll D. Wright, who shall constitute the first board of trustees. The
board of trustees shall have power from time to time to increase its membership
to not more than twenty-seven members. Vacancies occasioned by death, resignation,
or otherwise shall be filled by the remaining trustees in such manner as the by-laws
xii
ARTICLES OF INCORPORATION
shall prescribe; and the persons so elected shall thereupon become trustees and
also members of the said corporation. The principal place of business of the said
corporation shall be the city of Washington, in the District of Columbia.
Sec. 4. That such board of trustees shall be entitled to take, hold, and administer
the securities, funds, and property so transferred by said Andrew Carnegie to the
trustees of the Carnegie Institution and such other funds or property as may at any
time be given, devised, or bequeathed to them, or to such corporation, for the purposes
of the trust; and with full power from time to time to adopt a common seal, to
appoint such officers, members of the board of trustees or otherwise, and such
employees as may be deemed necessary in carrying on the business of the corporation,
at such salaries or with such remuneration as they may deem proper; and with
full power to adopt by-laws from time to time and such rules or regulations as
may be necessary to secure the safe and convenient transaction of the business of
the corporation; and with full power and discretion to deal with and expend the
income of the corporation in such manner as in their judgment will best promote
the objects herein set forth and in general to have and use all powers and authority
necessary to promote such objects and carry out the purposes of the donor. The
said trustees shall have further power from time to time to hold as investments
the securities hereinafter referred to so transferred by Andrew Carnegie, and any
property which has been or may be transferred to them or such corporation by
Andrew Carnegie or by any other person, persons, or corporation, and to invest
any sums or amounts from time to time in such securities and in such form and
manner as are permitted to trustees or to charitable or literary corporations for
investment, according to the laws of the States of New York, Pennsylvania, or
Massachusetts, or in such securities as are authorized for investment by the said deed
of trust so executed by Andrew Carnegie, or by any deed of gift or last will and
testament to be hereafter made or executed.
Sec. 5. That the said corporation may take and hold any additional donations,
grants, devises, or bequests which may be made in further support of the purposes
of the said corporation, and may include in the expenses thereof the personal expenses
which the trustees may incur in attending meetings or otherwise in carrying out
the business of the trust, but the services of the trustees as such shall be gratuitous.
Sec 6. That as soon as may be possible after the passage of this Act a meeting
of the trustees hereinbefore named shall be called by Daniel C. Gilman, John S.
Billings, Charles D. Walcott, S. Weir Mitchell, John Hay, Elihu Root, and Carroll D.
Wright, or any four of them, at the city of Washington, in the District of Columbia,
by notice served in person or by mail addressed to each trustee at his place of resi-
dence; and the said trustees, or a majority thereof, being assembled, shall organize
and proceed to adopt by-laws, to elect officers and appoint committees, and generally
to organize the said corporation; and said trustees herein named, on behalf of the
corporation hereby incorporated, shall thereupon receive, take over, and enter into
possession, custody, and management of all property, real or personal, of the cor-
poration heretofore known as the Carnegie Institution, incorporated, as hereinbefore
set forth under "An Act to establish a Code of Law for the District of Columbia,
January fourth, nineteen hundred and two," and to all its rights, contracts, claims,
and property of any kind or nature; and the several officers of such corporation, or
xiii
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
any other person having charge of any of the securities, funds, real or personal,
books, or property thereof, shall, on demand, deliver the same to the said trustees
appointed by this Act or to the persons appointed by them to receive the same;
and the trustees of the existing corporation and the trustees herein named shall
and may take such other steps as shall be necessary to carry out the purposes of
this Act.
Sec. 7. That the rights of the creditors of the said existing corporation known as
the Carnegie Institution shall not in any manner be impaired by the passage of this
Act, or the transfer of the property hereinbefore mentioned, nor shall any liability
or obligation for the payment of any sums due or to become due, or any claim or
demand, in any manner or for any cause existing against the said existing corporation,
be released or impaired; but such corporation hereby incorporated is declared to
succeed to the obligations and liabilities and to be held liable to pay and discharge
all of the debts, liabilities, and contracts of the said corporation so existing to the
same effect as if such new corporation had itself incurred the obligation or liability
to pay such debt or damages, and no such action or proceeding before any court
or tribunal shall be deemed to have abated or been discontinued by reason of the
passage of this Act.
Sec. 8. That Congress may from time to time alter, repeal, or modify this Act
of incorporation, but no contract or individual right made or acquired shall thereby
be divested or impaired.
Sec. 9. That this Act shall take effect immediately.
Approved, April 28, 1904
xiv
BY-LAWS OF THE INSTITUTION
Adopted December 13, 1904. Amended December 13, 1910, December 13, 1912,
December 10, 1937, December 15, 1939, December 13, 1940, and December 18, 1942
Article I
THE TRUSTEES
1. The Board of Trustees shall consist of twenty-four members, with power to
increase its membership to not more than twenty-seven members. The Trustees
shall hold office continuously and not for a stated term.
2. In case any Trustee shall fail to attend three successive annual meetings of the
Board he shall thereupon cease to be a Trustee.
3. No Trustee shall receive any compensation for his services as such.
4. All vacancies in the Board of Trustees shall be filled by the Trustees by ballot.
Sixty days prior to an annual or a special meeting of the Board, the President shall
notify the Trustees by mail of the vacancies to be filled and each Trustee may submit
nominations for such vacancies. A list of the persons so nominated, with the names
of the proposers, shall be mailed to the Trustees thirty days before the meeting,
and no other nominations shall be received at the meeting except with the unanimous
consent of the Trustees present. Vacancies shall be filled from the persons thus
nominated, but no person shall be declared elected unless he receives the votes of
two-thirds of the Trustees present.
Article II
MEETINGS
i. The annual meeting of the Board of Trustees shall be held in the City of
Washington, in the District of Columbia, on the first Friday following the second
Thursday of December in each year unless the date and place of meeting are
otherwise ordered by the Executive Committee.
2. Special meetings of the Board may be called by the Executive Committee by
notice served personally upon, or mailed to the usual address of, each Trustee twenty
days prior to the meeting.
3. Special meetings shall, moreover, be called in the same manner by the Chairman
upon the written request of seven members of the Board.
Article III
OFFICERS OF THE BOARD
i. The officers of the Board shall be a Chairman of the Board, a Vice-Chairman,
and a Secretary, who shall be elected by the Trustees, from the members of the
Board, by ballot to serve for a term of three years. All vacancies shall be filled by
the Board for the unexpired term; provided, however, that the Executive Committee
shall have power to fill a vacancy in the office of Secretary to serve until the next
meeting of the Board of Trustees.
2. The Chairman shall preside at all meetings and shall have the usual powers
of a presiding officer.
2 xv
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
3. The Vice-Chairman, in the absence or disability of the Chairman, shall perform
his duties.
4. The Secretary shall issue notices of meetings of the Board, record its transactions,
and conduct that part of the correspondence relating to the Board and to his duties.
Article IV
EXECUTIVE ADMINISTRATION
The President
1. There shall be a President who shall be elected by ballot by, and hold office
during the pleasure of, the Board, who shall be the chief executive officer of the
Institution. The President, subject to the control of the Board and the Executive
Committee, shall have general charge of all matters of administration and supervision
of all arrangements for research and other work undertaken by the Institution
or with its funds. He shall devote his entire time to the affairs of the Institution.
He shall prepare and submit to the Board of Trustees and to the Executive
Committee plans and suggestions for the work of the Institution, shall conduct its
general correspondence and the correspondence with applicants for grants and with
the special advisers of the Committee, and shall present his recommendations in
each case to the Executive Committee for decision. All proposals and requests for
grants shall be referred to the President for consideration and report. He shall have
power to remove and appoint subordinate employees and shall be ex officio a
member of the Executive Committee.
2. He shall be the legal custodian of the seal and of all property of the Institution
whose custody is not otherwise provided for. He shall sign and execute on behalf
of the corporation all contracts and instruments necessary in authorized administrative
and research matters and affix the corporate seal thereto when necessary, and
may delegate the performance of such acts and other administrative duties in his
absence to the Executive Officer. He may execute all other contracts, deeds, and
instruments on behalf of the corporation and affix the seal thereto when expressly
authorized by the Board of Trustees or Executive Committee. He may, within
the limits of his own authorization, delegate to the Executive Officer authority to
act as custodian of and affix the corporate seal. He shall be responsible for the
expenditure and disbursement of all funds of the Institution in accordance with
the directions of the Board and of the Executive Committee, and shall keep accurate
accounts of all receipts and disbursements. He shall submit to the Board of Trustees
at least one month before its annual meeting in December a written report of the
operations and business of the Institution for the preceding fiscal year with his
recommendations for work and appropriations for the succeeding fiscal year, which
shall be forthwith transmitted to each member of the Board.
3. He shall attend all meetings of the Board of Trustees.
4. There shall be an officer designated Executive Officer who shall be appointed
by and hold office at the pleasure of the President, subject to the approval of the
Executive Committee. His duties shall be to assist and act for the President as the
latter may duly authorize and direct.
xvi
BY-LAWS OF THE INSTITUTION
5. The President shall retire from office at the end of the calendar year in which
he becomes sixty-five years of age.
Article V
COMMITTEES
1. There shall be the following standing Committees, viz. an Executive Committee,
a Finance Committee, and an Auditing Committee.
2. The Executive Committee shall consist of the Chairman and Secretary of the
Board of Trustees and the President of the Institution ex officio and, in addition,
five trustees to be elected by the Board by ballot for a term of three years, who
shall be eligible for re-election. Any member elected to fill a vacancy shall serve for
the remainder of his predecessor's term: Provided, however, that of the Executive
Committee first elected after the adoption of these by-laws two shall serve for one
year, two shall serve for two years, and one shall serve for three years; and such
Committee shall determine their respective terms by lot.
3. The Executive Committee shall, when the Board is not in session and has
not given specific directions, have general control of the administration of the affairs
of the corporation and general supervision of all arrangements for administration,
research, and other matters undertaken or promoted by the Institution; shall appoint
advisory committees for specific duties; shall determine all payments and salaries;
and keep a written record of all transactions and expenditures and submit the
same to the Board of Trustees at each meeting, and it shall also submit to the
Board of Trustees a printed or typewritten report of each of its meetings, and at the
annual meeting shall submit to the Board a report for publication. The Executive
Committee shall have power to authorize the purchase, sale, exchange, or transfer
of real estate.
4. The Executive Committee shall have general charge and control of all ap-
propriations made by the Board.
5. The Finance Committee shall consist of five members to be elected by the
Board of Trustees by ballot for a term of three years.
6. The Finance Committee shall have custody of the securities of the corporation
and general charge of its investments and invested funds, and shall care for and
dispose of the same subject to the directions of the Board of Trustees. It shall have
power to authorize the purchase, sale, exchange, or transfer of securities and to
delegate this power. It shall consider and recommend to the Board from time to
time such measures as in its opinion will promote the financial interests of the
Institution, and shall make a report at each meeting of the Board.
7. The Auditing Committee shall consist of three members to be elected by the
Board of Trustees by ballot for a term of three years.
8. The Auditing Committee shall, before each annual meeting of the Board of
Trustees, examine the accounts of business transacted under the Finance Committee
and the Executive Committee. They may avail themselves at will of the services
and examination of the Auditor appointed by the Board of Trustees. They shall
report to the Board upon the collection of moneys to which the Institution is
entitled, upon the investment and reinvestment of principal, upon the conformity of
xvii
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
expenditures to appropriations, and upon the system of bookkeeping, the sufficiency
of the accounts, and the safety and economy of the business methods and safeguards
employed.
9. All vacancies occurring in the Executive Committee and the Finance Committee
shall be filled by the Trustees at the next regular meeting. In case of vacancy in
the Finance Committee or the Auditing Committee, upon request of the remaining
members of such committee, the Executive Committee may fill such vacancy by
appointment until the next meeting of the Board of Trustees.
10. The terms of all officers and of all members of committees shall continue until
their successors are elected or appointed.
Article VI
FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION
i. No expenditure shall be authorized or made except in pursuance of a previous
appropriation by the Board of Trustees, or as provided in Article V, paragraph 6,
hereof.
2. The fiscal year of the Institution shall commence on the first day of November
in each year.
3. The Executive Committee, at least one month prior to the annual meeting in
each year, shall cause the accounts of the Institution to be audited by a skilled
accountant, to be appointed by the Board of Trustees, and shall submit to the annual
meeting of the Board a full statement of the finances and work of the Institution
and a detailed estimate of the expenditures of the succeeding year.
4. The Board of Trustees, at the annual meeting in each year, shall make general
appropriations for the ensuing fiscal year; but nothing contained herein shall prevent
the Board of Trustees from making special appropriations at any meeting.
5. The securities of the Institution and evidences of property, and funds invested
and to be invested, shall be deposited in such safe depository or in the custody of
such trust company and under such safeguards as the Trustees and Finance
Committee shall designate; and the income available for expenditure of the
Institution shall be deposited in such banks or depositories as may from time to time
be designated by the Executive Committee.
6. Any trust company entrusted with the custody of securities by the Finance
Committee may, by resolution of the Board of Trustees, be made Fiscal Agent of
the Institution, upon an agreed compensation, for the transaction of the business
coming within the authority of the Finance Committee.
Article VII
AMENDMENT OF BY-LAWS
i. These by-laws may be amended at any annual or special meeting of the Board
of Trustees by a two-thirds vote of the members present, provided written notice
of the proposed amendment shall have been served personally upon, or mailed to
the usual address of, each member of the Board twenty days prior to the meeting.
xviii
ABSTRACT OF MINUTES OF THE FORTY-SEVENTH MEETING
OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES
The meeting was held in New York, N. Y., in the Board Room of the Carnegie
Corporation of New York, on Friday, December 14, 1945. It was called to order at
11:00 a.m. by the Chairman, Mr. Forbes.
Upon roll call, the following Trustees responded: James F. Bell, Robert Woods
Bliss, Lindsay Bradford, Frederic A. Delano, Homer L. Ferguson, W. Cameron
Forbes, Walter S. Giflford, Herbert Hoover, Frank B. Jewett, Alfred L. Loomis,
Roswell Miller, Henry S. Morgan, Seeley G. Mudd, Henning W. Prentis, Jr.,
Elihu Root, Jr., Henry R. Shepley, Richard P. Strong, Charles P. Taft, Juan T.
Trippe, James W. Wadsworth, Frederic C. Walcott, and Lewis H. Weed. The
President of the Institution, Vannevar Bush, was also in attendance.
The minutes of the forty-sixth meeting were approved as printed and submitted
to the members of the Board.
Reports of the President, the Executive Committee, the Auditor, the Finance
Committee, the Auditing Committee, and of Chairmen of Divisions, Directors
of Departments, and Research Associates of the Institution were presented and
considered.
The Chairman announced the death of the President Emeritus, and upon motion
it was
Resolved, That the Board of Trustees of the Carnegie Institution of Washington hereby
records its deep regret at the death, on October 30, 1945, of Dr. John Campbell Merriam,,
President of the Institution from January 1, 1921 to December 31, 1938 and President
Emeritus from January 1, 1939 until his death. Already distinguished as a brilliant student
and notable contributor to his chosen field of paleontology and already recognized as a leader
in organization of scientific programs, Dr. Merriam brought to the Institution qualities of
mind and of humanity which resulted in profound advances in knowledge within the Insti-
tution and more broadly throughout the whole realm of science. By repeated emphasis on
biological phenomena, he became a rare philosophic interpreter of nature and natural re-
sources in their effects upon human thought and human aspirations. He led the Institution
into new channels of scientific endeavor; and by his sympathetic understanding of human
relationships, by his discriminating selection of investigators of exceptional ability, by his
kindly insistence upon cooperative effort, he molded the various divisions within the Institu-
tion into an effective unit for furtherance of human knowledge. Dr. Merriam broadened
and strengthened the concept of the Institution as an instrument of utmost value to society
in the initiation and support of research. To the members of the Board of Trustees, Dr.
Merriam was more than the wise leader and able investigator; he was friend and counselor.
The members therefore record a profound personal regret at his death but rejoice that he
has left so forceful and lasting an imprint upon the scientific endeavors of the Institution.
The following appropriations for the year 1946 were authorized:
Pension Fund $95,000
Administration (including expenses of Investment Office and of Insurance) .... 109,472
Publications (including expenses of Office of Publications and Public Relations) . 64,000
Departmental Research Operations 1,062,366
xix $1,330,838
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
Mr. Giflord was elected Chairman of the Board, Mr. Root was elected Vice-
Chairman, and Mr. Delano was re-elected Secretary, each for the ensuing period of
three years.
Robert Woods Bliss, Henry R. Shepley, and Lewis H. Weed were re-elected
members of the Executive Committee for a period of three years.
Walter S. Giflford, Elihu Root, Jr., and Frederic C. Walcott were re-elected
members of the Finance Committee for a period of three years.*
Frederic A. Delano, Homer L. Ferguson, and James W. Wadsworth were re-
elected members of the Auditing Committee for a period of three years.
The meeting adjourned at 12:40 p.m.
* At the meeting of the Executive Committee following the annual meeting of the Board,
Mr. Gifford submitted his resignation as a member of the Finance Committee, and Henry S.
Morgan was appointed to take his place until the next annual meeting.
xx
REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
For the Year Ending October 31, 1945
To the Trustees of the Carnegie Institution of Washington:
Gentlemen : Article V, section 3 of the By-Laws provides that the Executive Com-
mittee shall submit, at the annual meeting of the Board of Trustees, a report for
publication; and Article VI, section 3 provides that the Executive Committee shall
also submit, at the same time, a full statement of the finances and work of the
Institution and a detailed estimate of the expenditures for the succeeding year. In
accordance with these provisions, the Executive Committee herewith respectfully
submits its report for the fiscal year ending October 31, 1945.
During this year the Executive Committee held five meetings, printed reports of
which have been mailed to each Trustee and constitute a part of this report.
A statement of activities of the Institution is contained in the report of the Presi-
dent, which has been considered and approved by the Executive Committee, and is
submitted herewith. Requests for use of facilities and resources of the Institution in
carrying on war research under contracts with the Government have resulted in full-
time operation of many departments of the Institution in the national interest. During
the past year active work has been completed on most of the Government contracts
entered into by the Institution. Thirty-eight projects have been undertaken during
the past five years in the interest of war activities, and all but ten of these projects,
still requiring some months of further work, have been completed. These activities
are covered by 140 contracts, orders, or amendments, by means of which a total
amount of four and a quarter million dollars has been made available for reimburse-
ment to the Institution for out-of-pocket expenses. The Institution's own contribution
in performing these research tasks for the Government has consisted of loan of space
and equipment, of service by members of the scientific and executive staffs without
cost to the Government, and of allotments aggregating about f 100,000 to cover special
needs and services. The contribution which the Institution has made to the Govern-
ment in the form of services by members of its scientific and executive staffs would
have added approximately a million dollars to Government contracts if the Govern-
ment had paid for such services. Furthermore, there has been no charge for overhead
expenses in connection with the Institution's own part of the work.
The detailed estimate of expenditures for the succeeding year contained in the
report of the President has been considered by the Executive Committee, which has
approved the recommendations of the President in respect thereto and has provisionally
approved the budget estimates based thereon and submitted therewith. Continued
attention has been given both by the Executive Committee and by the Finance Com-
mittee to the question of availability of funds for Institution activities in 1946, and
budget recommendations are based upon the judgment of these committees with
respect to financial policy in the post-war period.
The Board of Trustees, at its meeting of December 15, 1944, appointed Price, Water-
house and Company to audit the accounts of the Institution for the fiscal year ending
xxi
October 31, 1945. The report of the Auditor, including a balance sheet showing assets
and liabilities of the Institution on October 31, 1945, is submitted as a part of the report
of the Executive Committee.
In addition to the report of the Auditor there is also submitted a financial statement
for the fiscal year ending October 31, 1945, showing funds available for expenditure
and amounts allotted by the Executive Committee, a customary statement of receipts
and disbursements since the organization of the Institution on January 28, 1902, and a
schedule of real estate and equipment at original cost. These statements together with
the tables in the Auditor's report comprise a full statement of the finances of the
Institution.
No vacancy exists in the membership of the Board of Trustees.
Tenure of office of the following officers of the Board of Trustees will expire at the
annual meeting in December: Mr. Forbes, Chairman of the Board; Mr. Gifford, Vice-
Chairman of the Board; and Mr. Delano, Secretary of the Board. Tenure of office of
Messrs. Bliss, Shepley, and Weed as members of the Executive Committee; of Messrs.
Gifford, Root, and Walcott as members of the Finance Committee; and of Messrs.
Delano, Ferguson, and Wadsworth as members of the Auditing Committee will also
expire at the annual meeting.
W. Cameron Forbes, Chairman
Vannevar Bush
Robert Woods Bliss
Frederic A. Delano
Walter S. Gifford
Henry R. Shepley
Frederic C. Walcott
Lewis H. Weed
November 1, 1945 4
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XXIV
Real Estate and Equipment, Original Cost
Administration {October 31, 1945)
1530 P Street, N.W., Washington, D. C.
Building, site, and equipment $847 , 746 . 01
Division of Plant Biology {September 30, 1945)
Stanford University, California {Headquarters)
Buildings and grounds $74, 125. 72
Laboratory 40,655.01
Library 26,518.42
Operating equipment 14 , 043 . 22 155 , 342 . 37
Department of Embryology {September 30, 1945)
Wolfe and Madison Streets, Baltimore, Maryland
Library $4,498.38
Laboratory 19,561.44
Administration 7 , 989 . 55 32 , 049 . 37
Department of Genetics {September 30, 1945)
Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, New York
Buildings, grounds, and field $293,071 .35
Operating equipment 34 , 089 . 25
Laboratory apparatus 38 , 352 . 99
Library 54 , 568 . 64
Archives 45,488.90 465,571.13
Geophysical Laboratory {September 30, 1945)
2801 Upton Street, N.W., Washington, D. C.
Building, library, and operating appliances $292,267.05
Laboratory apparatus 171, 304 . 96
Shop equipment 21,103.00 484,675.01
Division of Historical Research {September 30, 1945)
10 Frisbie Place, Cambridge, Massachusetts
Operating equipment $28 , 797 . 96
Library 15,020.90 43,818.86
Nutrition Laboratory {September 30, 1945)
29 Blackfan Street, Boston, Massachusetts
Building, office, shop, and library $134,613.93
Laboratory apparatus 31,828.84 166,442.77
Mount Wilson Observatory {September 30, 1945)
Pasadena, California
Buildings and grounds $222,458.33
Shop equipment 48 , 976 . 14
Instruments 685 , 363 . 2 1
Furniture and operating appliances 153 , 194 . 77
Hooker 100-inch reflector 638 , 529 . 83 1 , 748 , 522 . 28
Department of Terrestrial Magnetism {September 30, 1945)
5241 Broad Branch Road, N.W., Washington, D. C.
Building, site, and office $257,838.42
Survey equipment 94, 016. 62
Instruments, laboratory, and shop equipment 473,429.85 825,284.89
$4,769,452.69
xxv
REPORT OF AUDITORS
To the Board of Trustees
Carnegie Institution of Washington
Washington, D. C.
We have made an examination of the attached balance sheet of Carnegie Institution of
Washington (and supporting schedule of securities owned) as of October 31, 1945 and the
related statement of operating income and expenditures for the fiscal year then ended. In
connection therewith, we obtained confirmations from the custodian, Guaranty Trust Com-
pany of New York, as to the securities owned by the Institution and held in safekeeping
at October 31, 1945 and from the depositaries as to the cash balances in banks at that date.
The interest maturing during the fiscal year on bonds owned was accounted for, and the
dividends received during the year on stocks owned were compared with published
dividend records. With respect to a period of three months selected by us the recorded
cash receipts were traced to deposits shown on the bank statements and paid checks and
approved vouchers were inspected in support of the head office disbursements. We did
not visit the branch offices of the Institution but we reviewed internal audit reports of the
Bursar covering examinations of the branch records during the year and it appeared that
the internal audits were satisfactorily conducted. We also inspected certified copies of
the minutes of meetings of the Board of Trustees and the Executive Committee with
respect to the appropriations and allotments for the year.
The securities are stated at cost, amortized cost or value at date acquired. In accord-
ance with a recommendation made in February 1940 by the Institution's Finance Com-
mittee, premiums on bonds purchased subsequent to lanuary 1, 1940 are being amortized
on a straight-line basis to the dates on which the bonds are first callable or payable at par.
The amortization of such premiums applicable to the year ended October 31, 1945
amounted to $5,955-59- Real estate and equipment are stated at cost, and books on hand
for sale are carried at sales prices. In accordance with accepted practice no provision has
been made for depreciation of property owned by the Institution.
In accordance with established custom of the Institution, the budget appropriations are
made for the calendar year, whereas the annual financial statements are prepared for the
fiscal year ending October 31. In previous years the balance of estimated income
applicable to November and December was included in the assets of the General Fund
as at October 31 preceding and the unexpended appropriations and allotments for the same
period were reflected in the current obligations in the balance sheet. Estimated income and
approved appropriations and allotments for November and December 1945 are not reflected
in the attached balance sheet as at October 31, 1945.
In our opinion, with the foregoing explanations, the accompanying balance sheet and
related statement of operating income and expenditures present fairly the position of
Carnegie Institution of Washington at October 31, 1945 and the financial aspects of its
operations for the year ended on that date.
Price, Waterhouse & Co.
Washington, D. C.
November 26, 1945
xxvi
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XXV11
General Fund
Statement of Operating Income and Expenditures for the Fiscal Year Ended October 31, 1945
Income:
Interest and dividends on securities
$1,368,018.87
5,955.59
Less — Amortization of bond premiums
Sales of publications
$1,362,063.28
6,146.26
13,000.00
22,366.19
Carnegie Corporation of New York — grants
Other credits
$1,403,575.73
Expenditures:
Pension Fund — annuity and insurance
$123,879.57
8,230.00
43.12
6,785.70
776,318.47
36,397.64
13,158.43
17,767.88
119,381.05
Carnegie Corporation Emergency Fund — grants . .
Harriman Fund — commissions
General Contingent Fund
Departmental research operations:
Salaries
$627,463.92
148,854.55
Operating expenses
Research projects of limited tenure:
Salaries
$21,281.90
15,115.74
Operating expenses
General publication:
Salaries
$2,114.91
11,043.52
Expenditures
Office of publications:
Salaries
$16,007.09
1,760.79
Operating expenses
Administration expenses
Less — Salaries and operating expenditures charged
to previous appropriations
$1,101,961.86
173,837.84
928,124.02
Excess of income over expenditures
$475,451.71
Less — Credits to General Reserve Fund and other
accounts . .
183,924.70
Unexpended and unallocated current income. .
$291,527.01
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XXXIV
REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT
OF THE
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
FOR THE YEAR ENDING OCTOBER 31, 1945
REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT
OF THE
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
This report to the Trustees of the Car- search. Such research should continue;
negie Institution of Washington, made in fact it is essential that until the world
in accordance with the By-Laws, finds can develop better ways of ensuring the
the Institution in a period of transition, safety of all peace-loving peoples, the na-
Staff members are returning from war tion maintain this highly important aspect
activities, and we look forward to peace, of its efforts for security. But there are
The Institution can take satisfaction in other organizations which are more natu-
the contribution it has made to the war rally fitted for the task of supplementing
effort. Many members of its staff have the military research of the armed services
carried heavy responsibilities, in uniform themselves, because their normal pro-
and in the laboratories. Others whose pro- grams lie closer to application. The pri-
fessional talents could not be brought mary responsibility of the Institution hence
directly to wartime application have been is to return to that basic scientific re-
equally unselfish in their participation as search which is its normal function,
citizens in various forms of war work, and which now needs increased emphasis
The facilities of the Institution have been after five years of drawing on scientific
largely diverted to war research, with im- capital for the imperative task of making
portant results. In fact, one of the most applications to war. For this reason the
striking technical developments of the war, military research programs of the Institu-
which had a decided influence on the out- tion are being closed out as rapidly as is
come, had its origin in the Institution early consistent with the preservation of values
in the conflict. Radar arose from many already attained.
sources, but from none more clearly than With the return of peace the several
from early work in the Department of departments and divisions can take a fresh
Terrestrial Magnetism on reflections from start. The programs of many of them
the ionosphere. Many of the staff, and of have been so severely interrupted that they
the Trustees as well, have served in the are practically beginning anew. We can
civilian scientific organizations concerned look ahead, choose the lines of research
with war instrumentalities and war medi- in which the promise is greatest, and pro-
cine, and the Administration Building has ceed. There need be no limitation to the
become the gathering place for the scien- choice of programs, other than that dic-
tists of the country during its use as the tated by the extent of our resources and
focus of these activities. The effective re- the nature of our talents, as we evaluate
lationships thus initiated will long con- where our contributions to human knowl-
tinue on an informal basis. edge will be most fruitful. We should
With the return of peace there does not choose deliberately and take proper time
seem to be any obligation on the part of to do so, for the opportunity thus to choose
the Institution to continue military re- may be rare, and it is none too easy to
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
alter a program once it is embarked upon.
There is no need for continuing a pro-
gram merely because it has been a past
activity. Neither should we allow labels
to constrain us unduly. Certainly what-
ever we attempt should be such that every
member of the staff can contribute sub-
stantially to some portion of it, and derive
satisfaction in doing so. It is also clear that
the Institution should ordinarily not pur-
sue those objectives which can be pursued
equally well or better by other organiza-
tions, for the Institution is unique in many
ways. It has unique opportunities, and in
general it should seek unique ends if it is
fully to justify its existence and is to exert
among research organizations of the coun-
try the beneficent influence which its
position should ensure.
The programs of the several divisions
should become formulated by the staffs
of those divisions themselves. This con-
dition is fundamental to the success of any
undertaking in basic science. The Presi-
dent and the Trustees, of course, have
the duty to review and approve, for the
programs should measure up to certain
over-all criteria, and there is moreover the
obligation to ensure that the programs of
various divisions become so interrelated
that they may lend support one to another.
In fact, in advance of review, consultation
is very much in order, and it is hoped that
in the months ahead there will be close
contact between the members of the staff
and the committees of the Board concerned
with the various disciplines, either in joint
meetings or in frequent informal indi-
vidual discussions. But the staffs of the
divisions, under the leadership of their
several directors, will and should take the
burden of analysis, comparison, initiation,
and formulation, with the greatest free-
dom for the vision of individuals to be
expanded and the aspirations of individuals
to be weighed. Out of such deliberations
emerge sound programs which groups will
pursue with enthusiasm.
Some of this will have to wait, for not
all our absent members have yet returned.
Moreover, we are weary, and brilliant plans
are seldom formulated by tired men. It is
well that there should be a respite, as the
opportunity for vacation offers, before we
turn fully to the making of plans. No
time will be lost, for seldom does the time
spent in contemplating a program of re-
search before vigorously embarking upon
it exceed what is wise and reasonable.
In planning, moreover, it is necessary
that we take due note of what is going
on in scientific research in the country as a
whole. The war has brought great changes
in this regard, and even the organizational
forms under which research will be con-
ducted in the future in this country will
differ from those in use before the war.
The country is at last awake to the value
of scientific research. It may indeed even
be too much awake, for it was awakened
rather violently, and there may hence be
unwarranted distortions of view. There is
certain to be plenty of emphasis on applied
research in industry, governmental organi-
zations, and universities and colleges, but
it is not so certain that there will be suffi-
cient emphasis on fundamental or pure
research. Similarly there is bound to be
emphasis on research in the physical sci-
ences, because their applications have been
spectacular, and on direct medical science
for the same reason. It is not nearly so
certain that every area where the scientific
method can add to man's understanding
of himself and his environment will be
adequately explored.
This situation will probably be exag-
gerated because of the serious deficit which
policies pursued during the war produced
in the scientific manpower of the country.
REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT, 1945
The country learned fully of the impor- unless they are also engaged in teaching
tance of science, and of its application by those who will follow in their footsteps
engineers and industrialists, after the war, and some day pass them on the road, and
not before. Moreover, it did not grasp the one of the finest types of teaching is that
fact that, in any rapidly altering techno- exemplified by the master surrounded by
logical field, the young men are often the his disciples. There are many ways of
only ones who fully comprehend some of finding such young men and of giving
the ramifications. Two principles governed them opportunity to spend a few years
our actions: one that every citizen should with us. But we shall be severely ham-
be ready to sacrifice equally in the com- pered in the undertaking in the immediate
mon cause, and the other that every man post-war years, for there will just not be
should be used in the place where his enough young men of talent to go around,
talents could contribute most fully to the The vista ahead in science is, however,
common effort. These principles were not attractive indeed, if we can assume a peace-
in balance. As a result, by taking alto- ful world in which the energies of scien-
gether too many trained young scientists tists need no longer be diverted, almost
and engineers out of the laboratories and entirely, to activities necessary for military
industry, we very nearly wrecked that part security. This is not so much because
of our war effort which consists in keeping new opportunities have been opened dur-
the instrumentalities in the hands of our ing the war, for most of the war effort in
fighting men substantially superior to those science consisted in applying results in
of the enemy. We also sacrificed the fu- ways long familiar to scientific men.
ture to immediate needs, more than did Rather it is because the great part which
any of our allies or indeed our enemies, science and its application have played
by halting our processes of advanced edu- ensures that, taking the country as a whole,
cation, thus creating a lack of scientific there will be adequate support for scien-
manpower from which we shall not re- tific effort in the future if the country
cover for many years. We are a strange remains prosperous. It is also due to an-
country. As this is written we are at peace, other factor. Many a scientist has now
but we are still doing both these things. applied himself assiduously for five years
The result is that, as the Institution turns to tasks often far from his inclinations,
back to its normal functions, it will find assigned by the needs of the moment, and
the path difficult in many ways. The lack requiring his full energies. Yet the specu-
of a sufficient number of brilliant young lative mind has not been idle, even though
men with a basic training in fundamental it has been temporarily inhibited from
science will be particularly unfortunate, entering those inviting trails that have
We need such men throughout the Insti- been glimpsed in the midst of harassing
tution; their presence will be good for and confining duties. Every brilliant scien-
them and also for us. I have discussed tist in the country's service probably has
this point with many members of the staff one or more of these prospects which he has
and I find uniform agreement. No re- promised himself he would pursue when
search program which proceeds without the release came, and it has now come,
the benefit of the impact of young minds We have had a partial moratorium on the
can expect long to remain virile. Few in- creations of fundamental science, we have
dividuals can retain their creativeness fully unwisely produced a deficit of scientific
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
manpower, but we undoubtedly have a
new stock of dammed-up ideas. It will
be interesting to watch what happens as
the dam breaks.
One further point should be made be-
fore we turn to definite planning. There
is some fear prevalent, and there is basis
for the fear, that the present emphasis on
science may result in an unbalance in this
country and a neglect of other fields of
intellectual effort. The Institution is in-
deed directly interested in this matter, for
since the extension of knowledge is not
all by means of application of the scientific
method, the field of the Institution has
long included activities on the scientific
borderland, or indeed in the humanities.
Research has objectives that are broader
than practical knowledge, immediate or
potential, and involves those cultural as-
pects of knowledge which respond to the
innate curiosity of the race, and its ponder-
ings in regard to its origins and possibly
in regard to its destiny.
From a more practical point of view as
well, it is important that no unbalance
occur. We have entered a new world. It
is a terrifying world perhaps, as we view
the power of new forces which can de-
stroy, but then the world has always been
terrifying in many aspects to those who
have really regarded it face to face, rather
than substituted contemplation of an ideal-
ized model with some of the seamy aspects
omitted. It is certainly, however, a world
in which there is much need for coura-
geous and intelligent thinking in every
department of man's activities, not merely
in the scientific field. It is a world in
which young keen minds need to grapple
with many phases of the common prob-
lem of keeping progress uninterrupted by
such cataclysms as have twice jarred it
within a generation, or by other disasters,
for there are others that do not come under
the heading of war. There is a problem
before us, therefore: Will science become
overenthusiastic and will other depart-
ments of intellectual endeavor suffer as a
consequence
?
The answer to this problem will not
come through holding science back, or
through requiring of it some self-denying
restraint. It has too much to do, the na-
tional security and prosperity require its
full efforts, and the vistas are much too
attractive. The solution will not come
from pulling down but from building up.
Specifically, we need to educate fully in
this country all the young brilliant minds
that can be found, wherever they may
be located and whatever their station. We
have never done so nearly well enough.
If we do there will be sufficient to man the
various professions and intellectual pur-
suits, and as young men start their careers
the various callings should be clearly pre-
sented so that none requiring recruits
will be overlooked. We should not forget,
for example, that political careers must be
made fully attractive for sound thinkers
if democracy is to function effectively in a
world, of growing complexity. This may
not be directly the Institution's affair, for
it is not primarily an educational institu-
tion, even though it has a function to per-
form in advanced scientific education of
its own younger staff; but it is certainly
an important matter, and in one way or
another the Institution can perhaps lend
a hand.
Finances
The Institution has emerged from the dowment is in fact increased, because of
war in sound financial condition. Its en- the generosity of the Carnegie Corpora-
6
REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT, 1945
tion. Its investments have been safely man-
aged thus far through a very difficult
period.
It has conducted a large amount of war
research for government under contract,
on a basis where it contributed its facili-
ties, its normal overhead, and the services
of its regular staff, and was reimbursed
only for out-of-pocket expenses for addi-
tional staff, equipment, and overhead.
This policy has of course cost something,
for there have inevitably been expenses
that were not in either category, but the
direct cost has not been large.
On the other hand, some of the amounts
budgeted for support of departmental re-
search programs have not been expended,
on account of absence of staff members on
war assignments with other organizations.
These items have been reverted and placed
in reserves where they will be available
for the expenses of reconverting to normal
activities. Though this expense will be
substantial, for the equipment of the Insti-
tution will need attention after five years,
the money thus placed in the reserve fund
will apparently be sufficient for the pur-
pose. The expenditure of this reserve
awaits the return of the staff and the
formulation of programs for the future.
It is difficult to foresee the future from
a financial standpoint. In general it ap-
pears that, if the financial affairs of the
country remain in sound condition, so also
will those of the Institution. The rate of
income from endowment has dropped
severely, but thus far this loss has been
offset by additions to endowment, econo-
mies in operation, and the termination of
matured programs. Still, either a further
decrease in rate of income or a substantial
rise in the cost of living would bring
severe stress. Of course, a real inflation
would wreck the Institution completely as
well as the country generally, but there is
no way for us to guard against such an
eventuality except by our influence as citi-
zens on the general trends.
If the pattern following World War I is
repeated, we may expect a few years of
abnormal costs of living and of operation,
followed by a return to the long-time
trends which preceded the war. If such a
pattern repeats, we may well need to
operate with a succession of deficit budgets
and draw on our reserves, for we now
have little margin in operations. This pro-
cedure would not be disastrous, if the
period is actually temporary, for the con-
dition of our reserves is excellent.
Entirely apart from the short-term
trends, however, there is one point which
needs our attention as soon as the financial
outlook allows. The salary scale of the
Institution is not, by and large, high
enough in view of the position of the In-
stitution among research organizations in
the country. This disparity should be care-
fully and thoroughly corrected, even if in
order to rectify it we must forego oppor-
tunities to enter new fields of research for
some time.
New Retirement Plan
Restudy of the Institution's position with tive on January i, 1945. Specifications of
respect to retirement provisions has re- the old plan have been modified to pro-
suited in modification and restatement of vide increase in joint contributions toward
our procedure for annuity and life insur- premiums on annuity contracts and to elim-
ance, and adoption of a revised Retirement inate provision for supplementary annuity
and Insurance Plan which became effec- except in so far as supplementary aid
supplementary annuity load has been
reached, and obligations of this character
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
may be required in the few cases in which izes changes now contemplated in social
the new provision for minimum retiring security provisions, the Institution and its
allowance becomes applicable. members may be called upon to partici-
It is hoped that the minimum provisions pate, in which case further modification
of the new plan will enable the average of our own Retirement and Insurance Plan
male member to retire with a single life W1\\ De in order.
annuity of about 40 per cent of final salary. Annual appropriations for the Pension
This is a reasonable goal, but present Fund have been sufficient in tne past to
actuarial and financial conditions require cover the lnstitution's contributions lo-
an increase in annual contributions to ward payment o£ premiums on annuity
reach it. For new members the procedure and collective insurance contracts as well
is compulsory, with the provision that en- as payments by the Institution in the £orm
trance or those or advanced age will be r 1 1 • 1 1
.. . , , & . or supplementary annuity authorized by
conditioned by agreement with the Insti- 1 1 1 • 1 t-i ^ c i
. ° , r ., the old retirement plan. Ine peak 01 the
tution concerning the extent or contribu-
tions which may be necessary to produce
appropriate retirement benefits.
TU 1 1 re v ^ will gradually diminish in the future. On
Ine new plan also offers opportunity to b J
present members to increase their contribu- the other hand' there 1S sharP increase in
tions to the minimum percentage required cost to the Instltutl°n °f contributions to-
of new members. Many have taken ad- ward premium payments on annuity con-
vantage of this offer, and with policies tracts> as authorized by specifications of
which have prospect of low returns, such the new Plan- Jt is estimated that a net
action has been particularly helpful. Fur- increase of about $20,000 in the annual ap-
thermore, there is provision for extending propriation for the Pension Fund will be
the coverage of collective insurance. In required if this Fund is maintained as a
this connection it should be noted that, reservoir from which we shall continue to
if the United States Government author- make payments as in the past.
Retirements and Changes
Inauguration of a plan for joint action Palomar equipment is completed, and in
by the Institution and the California In- the reinforcing of this program by educa-
stitute of Technology in the future opera- tional activities on the campus of the Cali-
tion bf the great astronomical centers at fornia Institute. Graduate training lead-
Mount Wilson and Palomar Mountain ing to the doctorate will be given under
promises much positive accomplishment the auspices of the Institute by an astro-
in this important field of research. The physics staff drawn from both the Institu-
cordial informal cooperation which has tion and the Institute,
existed between the Mount Wilson Ob- Thus the fortieth anniversary year of
servatory and the California Institute since the Mount Wilson Observatory, witness-
the inception of the project for building a ing the retirement on January 1, 1946, of
200-inch telescope reaches maturity in the its distinguished Director, Dr. Walter S.
formulation of a unit scientific program Adams, after more than two decades' serv-
for the observational work of the two ob- ice, witnesses also the institution of a
servatories, to take effect as soon as the plan calculated to extend in future the
8
REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT, 1945
contribution to knowledge which has made
the observatory notable in the past. Dr.
Ira S. Bowen, Professor of Physics at the
California Institute of Technology, known
for his work in spectroscopy and astro-
physics, will succeed Dr. Adams as Direc-
tor. Elected to the Astronomy Section of
the National Academy of Sciences in 1936,
Dr. Bowen was awarded the Draper Medal
in 1942 in recognition of his discoveries in
astronomical physics.
The report of Dr. Thorne M. Carpenter
as Director of the Nutrition Laboratory
reviews in this Year Book an activity which
during the past thirty-eight years has pro-
duced results of the highest importance
in advancing knowledge of the nutritive
processes in man. The program of the
Laboratory, which was organized in 1907,
grew out of metabolism experiments sup-
ported earlier by the Institution and out
of needs for fundamental work in the
general field of nutrition. The experi-
mental studies were of pioneering value
in dealing with fundamental laws govern-
ing vital activity as expressed in the chem-
ical and energy transformations in the
animal body. Directed by Dr. Francis G.
Benedict from 1907 to 1937 and by Dr.
Carpenter thereafter, the Laboratory made
memorable contributions to knowledge of
the physiological chemistry of the human
body, to the development of instruments
and techniques, and to the accumulation
of physiological data concerning vital ac-
tivities of normal man and of special
pathological cases as well. In recent years
Dr. Carpenter and his small staff have
effectively carried on programs of special
war research.
It is thus after a noteworthy career that
the activities of the Laboratory are being
brought to termination with Dr. Carpen-
ter's retirement, in pursuance of the policy
which research organizations like the In-
stitution must follow — of relinquishing
work in which they have carried the ini-
tiative when the time comes that other
organizations are prepared to continue it.
Growing in part out of the general
correspondence which preceded the ap-
pointment of a new Director of the Office
of Publications and Public Relations, and
in part out of his study of the Institution's
past publications and publication policies,
basis has been laid for discussions by all
interested members of the Institution's
stafl designed to consolidate policy and to
consider expansion of the program so as to
aid increasing the intelligent nonscientific
citizen's comprehension of science. Plans
are in preparation for the rearrangement
and rehabilitation of the stocks of Institu-
tion publications, which have been dis-
arranged because of unprecedented de-
mands for space imposed by wartime uses
of the Administration Building; better co-
ordination of orders and shipping practices
has already been achieved, and will be
increased as present physical handicaps
are removed.
Research Activities
Though the departments and divisions
of the Institution have been to a great
degree withheld by war research from
vigorous pursuit of projects in their usual
fields of interest, some regular research
activities have been carried on. Since much
of the Institution's investigation for war
purposes bears directly on problems with
which it is engaged in normal times, many
findings have been made in war programs
which will be directly useful as regular
programs are resumed.
At Mount Wilson, Dr. Walter S. Adams
reports, the full observational program
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
with solar instruments and with the 100-
inch telescope has been conducted. Fur-
ther study has been made of the so-called
irregular sunspots which do not undergo
change in magnetic polarity at the start
of a new cycle. In the literature, these
have been characterized as "small unstable
groups," but the Mount Wilson study
shows them to be as large and as stable
as the spots which shift in polarity with
the new cycle. Present preliminary re-
sults indicate, in fact, that their polarity
is the only irregular feature of the so-called
irregular spots.
The cyclotron of the Department of
Terrestrial Magnetism has been in almost
continuous daily operation for cooperative
studies with the Naval Medical Research
Center and the United States Public
Health Service. These agencies and the
Department have each contributed work-
ers of special skills to the research teams
carrying on this work.
The needs disclosed by experience as
probable in any future research of the kind
are discussed in detail in the thirteenth and
final volume of "Scientific Results of
Cruise VII of the Carnegie during 1928-
1929 under Command of Captain J. P.
Ault," which has been completed for pub-
lication. Compilations of secular changes
in the characteristics of the earth's mag-
netic field, described in the Year Book
report for 1944, have been completed.
The volcano Paricutin in Mexico was
visited by a representative of the Depart-
ment of Terrestrial Magnetism for a pre-
liminary survey for a program expected to
be useful in the general problem of investi-
gation of thunderstorms, and by a repre-
sentative of the Geophysical Laboratory
who went at the request of the Division
of Geology and Geography of the Na-
tional Research Council in order to obtain
firsthand information upon which to ad-
vise the National Research Council group
set up to coordinate studies of the volcano.
Oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids in
the material has been found to be the
source of the antibiotic properties of
chlorellin, which was first isolated from
cultures of the alga Chlorella in the Divi-
sion of Plant Biology. As a result of this
important discovery, Dr. Spoehr reports,
other more direct sources of unsaturated
fatty acids, such as corn, olive, and raisin
oils, are now being utilized, and the oxida-
tion reaction produced by exposure of them
to air and light is under study. The
Chlorella research, which of itself offered
interesting possibilities in the development
of antibiotic materials, thus has served as
introduction to very promising fields.
Since unsaturated fatty acids are available
in such readily obtainable and relatively
inexpensive source materials as vegetable
oils, and since the mechanism of oxidation
giving rise to antibiotic values is, though
highly complex, susceptible of direct chem-
ical study, the program is being stressed
by the Division.
This Division's program of develop-
ment of improved range grasses to pro-
duce more feed by better utilization of the
soil and the growing season has resulted
in the production of promising hybrids
from which it is hoped to establish im-
proved types. Testing of the more satis-
factory hybrids — for example, one between
Big bluegrass from eastern Washington
and a hardy race of Kentucky bluegrass
from Swedish Lapland — is being carried
on at the Institution's mountain stations
as well as at the central laboratory. Some
are being delivered to the Soil Conser-
vation Service for more extensive final
testing.
Though published research of the De-
partment of Embryology during the year
past has been relatively small, because of
10
REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT, 1945
the wartime scattering of workers, the
main lines of the Department's work have
been continued. The development of the
Embryological Collection has progressed,
instruments and techniques have been
brought nearer final perfection, and other
programs have been carried out in per-
formance of the basic plan of research
stated in Year Book 40.
Successful development, under a War
Production Board contract, of a strain of
Penicillium yielding a high content of
penicillin was accomplished during the
year in the Department of Genetics. Mu-
tants produced by X-ray irradiation were
screened to pick out exceptional high yield-
ers rather than to screen out low yielders,
about 10 per cent of the samples being
retained. Of the 504 selected strains sent
to the University of Minnesota for further
testing, one, yielding about twice as much
penicillin as the strain from which it
originated, is now used in production.
The genetics of acquired bacterial re-
sistance to drugs and other antibacterial
agents is being studied in an extensive
program started in June 1945. Solving of
practical problems arising from bacterial
resistance to therapeutic agents, and at-
taining of fundamental knowledge of the
mutational patterns of bacteria and the
underlying physiological mechanisms, Dr.
Demerec states to be the two purposes
of the project. Work on resistance to
penicillin, sulfonamides, inorganic salts,
bacteriophages, and ultraviolet radiation
is included.
Interruption of the field work of the
Division of Historical Research and dimi-
nution of its staff by the war led to oppor-
tunity, which has been thoroughly utilized,
for the organization and writing up of the
results of various investigational programs.
Dr. Kidder reports that definitive publi-
cation of several projects has thus been
brought into immediate prospect. Recon-
naissance investigations of several sites, for
the collection of data, preparation of pre-
liminary maps, and similar purposes, have
been made during the year, in anticipa-
tion of the opportunity to resume field
operations.
//
REPORTS OF DEPARTMENTAL ACTIVITIES
AND COOPERATIVE STUDIES
ASTRONOMY
Mount Wilson Observatory
TERRESTRIAL SCIENCES
Geophysical Laboratory
Department of Terrestrial Magnetism
Special Projects
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
Division of Plant Biology
Department of Embryology
Department of Genetics
Nutrition Laboratory
Special Projects
HISTORICAL RESEARCH
Division of Historical Research
MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY
Pasadena, California
WALTER S. ADAMS, Director
The present year is the fortieth anni-
versary of the establishment of the Mount
Wilson Observatory by the Institution.
During this period progress in astronomy
and especially in astrophysics has been
extraordinary, in keeping with the great
developments in atomic physics. In addi-
tion, our knowledge of the universe has
increased remarkably, and the develop-
ment of methods for studying matter in
its various forms throughout the depths of
space has been successful almost beyond
belief.
The Observatory has contributed notably
to many of these advances, particularly in
the fields of solar and stellar physics, in
that of cosmogony, and in the application
of new methods and instruments to the
solution of astronomical problems. Be-
tween the discovery of magnetism in the
sun in 1908 and the development of the
observational basis for the theory of the
expanding universe in more recent years
lie a multitude of discoveries which have
aided in the interpretation of the intricate
and fascinating aspects of the physical
world. The Observatory has fulfilled in
large measure the hopes and expectations
of its founder and first Director, Dr. Hale,
and of the Institution which supported his
plans and ideals so fully and generously.
As the war reaches its end, scientific
research will encounter many problems of
readjustment, both material and psycho-
logical. In some respects the present is the
beginning of a new epoch which will call
for a close study, selection, and revaluation
of the problems of physical science. This
is especially true of astronomy, to which
the rapid development of new physical and
optical methods and devices, and of great
telescopes like the 200-inch reflector, will
bring remarkable opportunities and corre-
sponding responsibilities. It is with high
anticipations for a future of great accom-
plishment that the present Director sub-
mits to the President and the Trustees of
the Institution his last annual report of
the activities of the Observatory.
The part taken by the Observatory in
the study of various problems relating to
the war has been especially extensive dur-
ing the past year. In addition to previous
contracts entered into with the Office of
Scientific Research and Development, two
new contracts have been undertaken. One
of these is directly with the Army Air
Forces; the second, under the Applied
Mathematics Panel of the OSRD, has re-
quired a portion of the services of nearly
the entire scientific staff. This contract has
involved much statistical investigation.
With a single exception, all the members
of the staff who have been on leave of
absence for war investigations are still ab-
sent from the Observatory. As a result
there has been some difficulty in carrying
on the full observational program on
Mount Wilson; but through the cordial
cooperation of the remaining members of
the staff it has been possible to maintain
completely observations with the solar in-
struments and the 100-inch telescope. A
few interruptions have occurred in the
work of the 60-inch reflector.
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
STAFF AND ORGANIZATION
Research Division
Solar Physics: Harold D. Babcock, Seth B.
Nicholson, Joseph Hickox, Edison Hoge,
Edison Pettit, Robert S. Richardson, Mary
F. Coffeen, Elizabeth S. Mulders, Myrtle
L. Richmond.
Stellar Motions and Distances: Adriaan van
Maanen, Ralph E. Wilson,* A. Louise
Lowen.
Stellar Photometry: Walter Baade, Mary
Joyner Seares.
Stellar Spectroscopy: Walter S. Adams, Wil-
liam H. Christie,* Theodore Dunham, Jr.,*
Milton L. Humason, Alfred H. Joy, Paul
W. Merrill, Rudolph Minkowski, Roscoe
F. Sanford, Gustaf Stromberg, Olin C.
Wilson,* Ada M. Brayton, Sylvia Burd,
Cora G. Burwell, Dorothy D. Locanthi,* A.
Louise Lowen.
Nebular Photography, Photometry, and Spec-
troscopy: Edwin P. Hubble,* Walter Baade,
Milton L. Humason, Rudolph Minkowski,
Sylvia Burd.
Physical Laboratory: Robert B. King.*
Editorial Division: Paul W. Merrill, editor;
Elizabeth Connor, assistant editor and
librarian; Alice S. Beach, secretary and
stenographer.
Alfred H. Joy has continued as Secretary
of the Observatory throughout the year.
Research Associates
Sir James Jeans, Dorking, England; Henry
Norris Russell, Princeton University; Fred-
erick H. Seares, Pasadena; Joel Stebbins,
University of Wisconsin.
Dr. Russell has been actively engaged in
the analysis of the neutral iron spectrum in
collaboration with Mrs. Sitterly, and his
advice and experience have been of great
value in the preparation of the extensive
Multiplet Table by Mrs. Sitterly, and of
the Infrared Solar Spectrum by Babcock
* On leave of absence for investigations relat-
ing to the war.
and Mrs. Sitterly. The Fe i Table has been
published and the other two catalogues are
nearing completion. The solar material
used in all three investigations has been
provided from Mount Wilson.
Dr. Seares with the aid of Miss Joyner
has completed an extensive analysis of the
basic magnitudes of southern stars meas-
ured by Stoy at the Cape of Good Hope
and has compared them with standards in
the northern hemisphere. In addition, Dr.
Seares and Miss Joyner have studied cer-
tain statistical problems arising in the
course of the analysis.
The wave length of the strong infrared
radiation in the night sky detected by Dr.
Stebbins and Dr. Whitford several years
ago has been measured by Stebbins with
sufficient accuracy to enable Dr. Swings
to establish its origin as molecular nitrogen.
Dr. Stebbins has also completed photoelec-
tric measurements of 238 stars of different
spectral types in six regions of the spec-
trum. The results are most interesting in
their bearing on space reddening and the
distribution in wave length of stellar radia-
tion as compared with that of a black body.
Temporary Associates
Dr. S. A. Mitchell, Director of the
Leander McCormick Observatory, spent
about six weeks of the summer of 1944 in
Pasadena, continuing his observations of
radial velocities with the 60-inch telescope.
Dr. John C. Duncan, Director of the
Whitin Observatory, made numerous di-
rect photographs of a variety of diffuse
and planetary nebulae with the two reflec-
tors during the summer of 1944 and com-
pared some of the negatives with similar
photographs made by him in 1921. Dr. P.
Swings, professor at the University of
Liege, has remained in Pasadena through-
MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY
out the year and has carried on active
studies in stellar spectroscopy during a
portion of his time. These have resulted
in important identifications of forbidden
and highly ionized lines in several stars of
peculiar spectrum, in the identification al-
ready mentioned of the strong infrared
radiation at A10440 in the night sky with
a band of molecular nitrogen, and in nu-
merous other interesting results.
Miss Suzanne van Dijke spent several of
the summer and autumn months of 1944
in Pasadena, continuing her investigation
of the spectral differences between giant
and dwarf stars. Mr. W. C. Miller, of
Pasadena, has continued the observations
of bright-line B-type stars which he began
several years ago with the 10-inch tele-
scope, and has supplemented them with
spectrograms he has obtained with the
60-inch reflector.
Several rnembers of the Ballistic Re-
search Laboratory of the Aberdeen Prov-
ing Ground were at the Pasadena offices
of the Observatory during the autumn of
1944. A large measuring instrument was
placed at their disposal and assistance was
given in other ways.
Instrument Design and Construction
Design: Edgar C. Nichols, chief designer;
Harold S. Kinney, draftsman.
Optical Shop: Donald O. Hendrix, superin-
tendent.
Instrument Shop: Albert Mclntire, foreman;
Elmer Prall, instrument maker; Fred
Scherff, Oscar Swanson, Albert Labrow,
Donald Yeager, machinists; Harry S. Fehr,
cabinet maker.
Maintenance and Operation
Office: Anne McConnell, bookkeeper; Doro-
thea Neuens, stenographer and telephone
operator.
Operation: Ashel N. Beebe, superintendent
of construction; Sidney A. Jones (on leave
of absence for military service) and Ken-
neth de Huff, engineers; Thomas A. Nel-
son, Floyd Day, Louis S. Graf, Hobart
Wright, night assistants; Ernest W. Har-
tong, truck driver and machinist helper;
Anthony Wausnock, Mrs. Wausnock, and
Mrs. Pauline Byers, stewards; Arnold T.
Ratzlaff, Irving Angel, and Harry Sering,
janitors.
Several of those whose names are listed
above have been with the Observatory but
a part of the year.
Numerous temporary additions were
made during the year to the personnel of
the optical and instrument shops and to
the experimental laboratory outside of the
Observatory buildings to provide for the
government contracts undertaken by the
Institution.
OBSERVING CONDITIONS
Because of interruptions in the observing
schedule, the detailed table showing the
monthly record of observations with the
60-inch telescope is omitted. Solar photo-
graphs were obtained on .316 days between
July 1, 1944 and June 30, 1945, and the
100-inch telescope was used on approxi-
mately 240 nights. In general, observing
conditions were below the average, as is
frequently the case when the winter sea-
son is abnormally cold. The total snowfall
was 52 inches and the precipitation for the
year 31.75 inches, 6.35 inches below the
normal amount for Mount Wilson. More
than one-half the snowfall came during the
month of March.
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
SOLAR RESEARCH
Solar Photography
Solar photographs were made on 316
days between July 1, 1944 and June 30,
1945 by Hickox, Hoge, Nicholson, Pettit,
and Richardson, as follows:
Direct photographs 632
Ha spectroheliograms of spot groups,
60-foot focus 576
Ha spectroheliograms, 18-foot focus. . 1,248
K2 spectroheliograms, 7-foot focus. . . 10,700
K2 spectroheliograms, 18-foot focus. . 1,220
K prominences, 18-foot focus 1,080
Sunspot Activity
The magnetic classification and study of
sunspots have been continued by Nichol-
son and Mrs. Mulders. During the cal-
endar year 1944, sunspot activity con-
tinued to decrease. Observations were
made on 320 days; 123 days were without
spots, as compared with 46 in 1943. In the
new cycle, the number of groups increased
from 6 in 1943 to 52 in 1944: the number
in the northern hemisphere increased from
0 to 19; in the southern hemisphere, from
6 to 33. In the waning cycle, the number
decreased from 89 in 1943 to 20 in 1944:
the number in the northern hemisphere
decreased from 54 to 8; in the southern
hemisphere from 35 to 12.
The monthly means of the number of
groups observed daily during the past two
and one-half years are given in the accom-
panying table. A curve of these monthly
means smoothed by overlapping three
months' means indicates that the sunspot
minimum occurred about 1944.3. The
minimum in 1933 was lower than that
in 1944. The total number of spots has
increased more rapidly since the minimum
in 1944 than in the corresponding interval
after the minimum in 1933.
Month
January. . .
February. .
March
April
May
June
July
August. . . .
September.
October. . .
November.
December .
Yearly average.
Daily Number
1943
1.1
2.0
2.4
2.1
1.8
1.1
1.3
2.2
0.9
0.8
1.3
1.5
1.5
1944
0.3
0.1
1.1
0.1
0.2
0.7
0.6
2.1
1.1
2.1
1.3
2.4
1.0
1945
2.5
1.1
1.9
2.8
3.6
3.8
Sunspot Polarities
This new cycle is the fifth in which the
magnetic fields in sunspots have been ob-
served. The magnetic polarities of the
spots of each new cycle have been arranged
oppositely to those of the preceding cycle.
"Regular" groups of the new cycle in the
northern hemisphere are those in which
the preceding spot has S (south-seeking)
polarity and the following spot N polarity;
in the southern hemisphere the polarities
are reversed.
Magnetic polarities in each spot group
have, so far as possible, been observed at
least once. The classification of groups
observed between July 1, 1944 and June 30,
1945 *s indicated in the table on the follow-
ing page.
One of the most fundamental facts con-
cerning the nature of sunspots is the
change in their magnetic polarity with the
new cycle. It cannot be said, however, that
all spot groups have the new polarity, for
about 2.5 per cent conform to the polarity
of the previous cycle. Such spot groups
are classified as "irregular." A catalogue
MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY
Polarity
Hemisphere
Regular
Irregular
Unclassified
Old cycle
New cycle
Old cycle
New cycle
Old cycle
New cycle
North
South
2
10
28
62
0
1
0
1
2
3
9
22
Whole sun
12
90
1
1
5
31
has been made by Richardson of all spot
groups of irregular polarity observed at
Mount Wilson since systematic magnetic
records were begun in 1917. The only
mention of irregular spot groups in the
literature is that they are "small unstable
groups." Careful study fails to confirm
this rather casual characterization. On the
contrary, the irregular spot groups are
fully as large and stable as the regular
spots. In fact, several irregular groups
have been naked-eye objects which en-
dured for two and three revolutions.
In addition to the statistical study, in-
tensive investigation was made of a large,
stable irregular spot which appeared re-
cently in the southern hemisphere. This
spot reached naked-eye proportions and
endured for a second revolution. Photo-
graphs were taken for Zeeman effect in
and far outside the spot; also for Evershed
effect, Wilson effect, and direction of hy-
drogen vortex. The only unusual feature
was that the direction of the hydrogen
vortex was distinctly opposite to that pre-
vailing in the southern hemisphere. Too
much significance should not be attached
to this circumstance, since about 20 per cent
of all observable whirls fail to conform.
The present preliminary results indi-
cate that the only irregular feature about
"irregular" spots is their polarity. As a
possible explanation, it is suggested that a
solar cycle never completely dies out, but
consists of alternate strong and very weak
cycles, the weak cycle corresponding to
the so-called irregular groups. That is, if
the number of spots all of the same po-
larity were plotted for three cycles, the
shape of the curve would consist of two
large humps with a small one between
of amplitude about 2.5 per cent of those
on either side. In this sense, the irregular
spots are really not "irregular" at all, but
merely a feeble manifestation of the pre-
vious strong disturbance.
Prominences
Although the minimum of prominence
activity which accompanied the sunspot
minimum during the year reduced con-
siderably the opportunity for prominence
study, several phenomena of importance
have been observed by Pettit.
An eruptive prominence was photo-
graphed on July 2, 1944, which moved
to a distance of 355,000 km from the
chromosphere along a trajectory whose
apparent angle with the extended solar
radius was 51 °, one of the three highest
inclinations observed in the catalogue of
68 eruptive prominences. Eruptive promi-
nences are seldom seen near sunspot mini-
mum. One other was observed at the
present minimum (April 16, 1944) and
one each at three previous minima.
A large interactive prominence extend-
ing over 60 ° of the solar limb appeared
8
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
at the beginning of January 1945. This
was remarkable for being the first known
instance in which a coronal cloud over a
sunspot group took a direct part in an
interactive prominence group. In previous
cases material from the cloud had rained
downward into the sunspot exclusively,
but in this case a neighboring prominence
drew the material to it with velocities in-
creasing from 18 to 61 km/sec along a
trajectory nearly parallel to the chromo-
sphere.
General Magnetic Field of the Sun
Poor observing conditions have pre-
vented some of the observing planned for
the investigation of the general magnetic
field, but one series of 28 plates in the
green region has been obtained with the
Lummer plate.
Infrared Solar Spectrum
Final identifications and excitation po-
tentials, now being added by Mrs. Sitterly
to the principal table of infrared data pre-
pared at Mount Wilson by Babcock, make
this table nearly ready for publication.
Additions made at Mount Wilson during
the year include: (1) numerous classifica-
tions of weak lines according to origin,
whether solar or terrestrial; (2) further
instrumental checking and calibration of
the visually estimated intensities of solar
lines. Over a wide range of spectrum the
estimates have required but small sys-
tematic corrections, and their accidental
deviations from uniformity average only
about 1 intensity unit.
Ultraviolet Solar Spectrum
Measurements by Babcock show that, in
the main, the scale of ultraviolet wave
lengths given in the Revised Rowland
Table requires systematic corrections of
only 0.001 or 0.002 A to fit it to the present
International scale. Below A3100, how-
ever, the individual errors become greater,
and Rowland's intensities are in some cases
obviously wrong. The wave-length scale
between A3 133 and A2995 has been rede-
termined by reference to adopted standards
in the blue region, and about 525 lines
between A3060 and A2950 have been meas-
ured in the usual way. Twenty-five addi-
tional lines and other features of the
spectrum were observed between A2950
and A2914; these have been roughly meas-
ured with a scale and magnifier.
Estimates of intensity are consistent with
laboratory data, and identifications are well
advanced. As would be expected, singly
ionized elements become more prominent
than in the visible spectrum.
LUNAR AND PLANETARY INVESTIGATIONS
Co-Albedo of the Moon
The albedo, A, of a planet has been
defined as the ratio of the whole of the
reflected light to the whole of the incident
light. A similar definition applies to the
ratio of the whole of the planetary heat
emitted to the whole of the incident solar
radiation; and, if A is measured radio-
metrically, this quantity is 1 — A and is
called the co-albedo. A calculation of
1 — A by Pettit shows that the magnitude
of the planetary heat from the full moon
outside the atmosphere is —15.63, a value
0.4 mag. numerically smaller than that
obtained by direct measurement of plane-
tary heat. Of this discrepancy, 0.26 mag.
is accounted for by a rediscussion of the
calibrations and the reductions to no at-
mosphere. The co-albedo of the moon
from the corrected measures of planetary
heat is 0.93, and from the calculations of
1 — A it is 0.90.
MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY
Pluto and Jupiter's Ninth Satellite 6o-inch telescope. With the assistance of
Several photographic observations of Miss Richmond the positions of both ob-
Pluto and the ninth satellite of Jupiter jects have been measured and the results
have been made by Nicholson with the published.
STELLAR INVESTIGATIONS
Parallaxes and Proper Motions
Measurements of nine additional paral-
lax fields, mainly of faint stars with large
proper motion, have been completed by
van Maanen. The most interesting of
these is Ross 882, which, like the com-
panion of Lalande 21258, appears to be a
variable of very faint absolute magnitude.
With a normal photographic magnitude
of 13. 1 to 13.3, it appeared of magnitude
1 1.8 on two photographs taken on March
11, 1943. Its absolute magnitude, based
upon a measured parallax of 0V146, has a
minimum range of from +14.1 to +12.6.
Its spectral type as determined by Joy is
M4C A negative parallax was found for
the Wolf-Rayet star C. du C. +i6°5i6,
which has a radial velocity of +195
km/sec.
Five pairs of plates covering 0.8 square
degree in the center of the Pleiades cluster,
taken at the 80-foot focus of the 60-inch
telescope and separated by an interval of
about 25 years, have been measured by
van Maanen. Of the 452 stars measured,
71 are found from their proper motions
to be probable members of the cluster.
Nine others with motions of the same
order are probably not members. One star
of photographic magnitude 15.6 has a
motion which indicates that it may be a
member of the Hyades.
Color Photometry and Standard
Magnitudes
Seares and Miss Joyner have seen
through the press three of the four in-
vestigations reported last year. Before the
revised color indices of standard polar
stars were printed, the results were ex-
tended to include all the useful data now
available. Other investigations are:
(1) Reduction of the Cape basic magni-
tudes by Stoy to the International sys-
tem. These standards, of high internal ac-
curacy, in the Harvard Regions at declina-
tion — 45°, were connected with the north
polar standards through Cape and Mount
Wilson observations of the southern com-
parison stars for Eros. The Mount Wilson
data, obtained in 1930 for another purpose,
have rather large accidental errors; but
the magnitude scales and the mean zero
points are in close agreement with Yerkes
measures of the Eros stars. Further, the
color indices are independent of magni-
tude, and the zero-point correction to the
spectrum-color relation is only 0.03 mag.
Similar tests applied to the Cape magni-
tudes also show a very satisfactory accord-
ance. As a final check, the Eros stars
should again be compared with the Pole,
although it is believed that the present
reduction is close to the truth. All together,
the results provide a photometric connec-
tion of the two hemispheres that should
meet modern requirements.
(2) In certain problems the squares of
the errors of measurement appear in the
coefficients of the normal equations. These
terms do not cancel out, and when the
percentage error is large, they affect seri-
ously the solution for the unknowns. The
method of removing this regression effect
already reported for the case of a single
unknown has been generalized to include
any number of unknowns.
(3) The difference in scale for the color
temperatures of stars derived from the In-
10
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
ternational color indices and from the Ci
and C2 series of Stebbins and Whitford
found in an earlier investigation was at-
tributed to departures from black-body
radiation. Proof is now available, with an
indication that hydrogen-continuum ab-
sorption is chiefly responsible. Approxi-
mate corrections for the absorption, which
it is hoped may be improved later, bring
the scales into good agreement. With the
zero point fixed at n,ooo° for A5 stars, the
color temperature for giant Ko (HD sys-
tem) is 38000 and for Ao i5,ooo°-i6,ooo°.
These results are derived from the spectral
interval 3400-5900 A.
Photoelectric Photometry
The strong infrared radiation in the
night sky detected several years ago by
Stebbins and Whitford has been shown
by Swings to be caused by molecular nitro-
gen. The wave length of 10440 A, deter-
mined by measures with suitable filters,
agrees with that of the (0,0) band of the
first positive group of nitrogen. The ab-
sence of other N2 bands suggests that emis-
sion of the (0,0) band involves conversion
of the energy of dissociation D(N2) into
excitation in a three-body collision
N + N + N2->N + N2exc.
Stebbins has completed the photoelectric
measurements of 238 stars of different
spectral types in six regions of the spectrum
from A3500 to A 1 0000, and the results are
ready for publication. The early-type stars
from O to B3 show small dispersion in in-
trinsic color, but many are strongly affected
by space reddening. A dozen late-type
giants in low galactic latitudes are also
affected by such reddening. The most
marked effect of absolute magnitude is
near spectrum Ko, where the colors of
dwarfs, ordinary giants, and supergiants
are all different.
The distribution of the radiation of dif-
ferent stars over the large range of wave
lengths agrees with the distribution for a
black body at suitable temperatures, but
until a zero point of the temperature scale
has been fixed, such so-called color tem-
peratures must be relative. The determina-
tion of absolute stellar temperatures based
upon a standard terrestrial source still re-
mains one of the important problems of
astronomy.
The colors of most of the stars fit
into a uniform series. One of the few
anomalous cases is that of the bright stars
of the Trapezium cluster of the Orion
nebula, where the previous result of Baade
and Minkowski is confirmed, namely, that
the optical properties of the absorbing in-
terstellar material are modified to cause
the Trapezium stars to stand out from a
larger cluster in that region.
Comparison of the new colors with
the International colors and the previous
photoelectric colors of the North Polar
Sequence give the ratios of the scales of
color index. These ratios depend upon
whether change of color is caused by
change of spectral type or by change in
the amount of space reddening for dif-
ferent stars.
Visual Magnitudes of Double Stars
The measurement of the magnitudes of
systems containing a bright star with a
companion fainter than 11.0 was begun by
Pettit in December 1944. The wedge
photometer was adapted to the Cassegrain
focus of the 60-inch reflector, where a
magnification of 746 was obtained. A
high-speed sector was used to reduce the
light of the bright star, and, in combina-
tion with the shade glasses of the artificial
star and the wedge, provided a range of
9 magnitudes in the instrument.
Systems in which the separation is less
MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY
II
than 3 seconds were given special atten-
tion, many measures being made on
doubles of slightly less than i second o£
arc separation. This work is limited to
periods of good seeing, but even with this
handicap 94 double-star measures were ob-
tained, many of which include two sets of
determinations.
Visual Magnitude of Nova Puppis
Nova Puppis was measured by Pettit on
36 nights between October 15, 1944 and
April 19, 1945. There was little net change
in magnitude over this period. The mean
magnitude October to January was 9.97,
and January to April, 10.00.
Visual Magnitude of a Orionis
This star is passing through a minimum
of light. Measures on 19 nights from
February 21 to April 16, inclusive, give
a mean magnitude of 1.15, which is just
within the range usually given, 0.1 to 1.2
magnitudes.
STELLAR SPECTROSCOPY
Taurus Cluster
Since the 1943 report, 159 spectrograms
of 120 stars in the region of the Taurus
cluster have been obtained and measured
by R. E. Wilson. Sixteen of these stars
had not been previously observed. Radial
velocities have now been determined for
239 stars in this region. All but 10 of the
velocities are based upon more than one
spectrogram. Of the stars observed, 157
are probably cluster members, 26 are doubt-
ful, and the remainder definitely do not
belong to the cluster. The survey cover-
ing all suggested cluster members brighter
than 10.5 visual magnitude will be com-
pleted with the reobservation of some 25
stars during the latter half of this year.
Dwarf Stars
Spectrographic observations of 140 stars
with proper motions greater than 0Y35
have been completed by Joy, and the
radial velocities, spectral types, and spec-
troscopic absolute magnitudes will soon
be ready for publication. About 40 dwarf
M-type stars having emission lines of hy-
drogen and calcium (H and K) have been
listed and observed spectroscopically. The
radial velocities have been measured and
studies of the spectra are under way. These
stars are among the faintest known as re-
gards intrinsic luminosity.
Radial Velocity of Rigel
Further observations by Sanford show
that although the radial velocity of Rigel
((3 Orionis) undoubtedly varies, no definite
period seems to exist. The possibility of
a period of less than one day, though not
ruled out, seems unlikely. Velocities de-
rived from the hydrogen and helium lines
differ systematically from those of other
lines. In some respects there seems to be
a similarity in behavior between this star
and a Cygni.
Radial Velocity of a Orionis
The recent minimum of light of a
Orionis has afforded an opportunity to
examine possible changes of spectrum
with phase. Several spectrograms taken
by Adams with the 114-inch camera of
the coude spectrograph show no striking
differences from the spectrum at maxi-
mum, but some interesting changes in de-
tail. Changes are especially marked in
such lines as those of Mn 1 and Cr 1, which
arise from the zero level of excitation.
These lines appear as relatively sharp
components superposed upon broad hazy
12
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
lines which seem to shift back and forth ber of these plates, taken when the vari-
beneath them. The sharp components able was relatively faint, required long ex-
show no variation in radial velocity over a posure. More than half the plates, many
period of eight years, whereas the diffuse of which extend far into the ultraviolet
lines show a range of about 8 km/sec. and record a large number of lines, have
With lower dispersion the lines would been measured, and a beginning has been
blend and an intermediate value would be made on the reduction and discussion,
observed. This may account for the some- The curious multiple structure of the
what discordant results found by different bright hydrogen lines in the spectra of
observers for this star and a few others certain red variable stars has puzzled as-
of supergiant M type. tronomers for many years. New evidence
that the minima in some of the lines corre-
Variable Stars spond to dark lines of the reversing layer
Studies of the spectra of numerous was supplied by a comparison of spectro-
classes of variable stars have been made by grams o£ ° Ceti> dispersion 3 A/mm, taken
the stellar spectroscopic observers. These near the maximum of January 1945, with
have included long-period variables of one o£ 3 Pegasi> a non-emission M-type
spectral types M and N, Cepheids, a few star whose absorption-line spectrum is
short-period variables, and stars of the T much like that o£ ° Ceti- The close corre'
Tauri and SS Cygni classes of variability, spondence of details in several bright lines,
Some of the stars had been investigated particularly in HQ and H\, with similar
previously but have now been reobserved details at the same wave lengths in the
with higher dispersion. spectrum of 3 Pegasi seems convincing. Six
The results of a comprehensive study or eight minima within the bright lines
by Joy of the spectroscopic behavior of a H^ H^ H®> and H[ have been identified
group of 11 variable stars resembling T with metallic lines. The conclusion is that
Tauri in many respects have been col- the minima which cause the bright lines
lected and prepared for publication. The t0 aPPear multiple are just a part of the
physical properties of these stars suggest normal dark-line spectrum, and that the
that they may form a new class char- hydrogen series is emitted as single, slightly
acterized by irregular light-variations of widened lines at a level below the stratum
three magnitudes or more, spectral types of of absorbing metallic gases. This is an
dF5 to dG5 with emission lines resembling unusual inversion.
the upper solar chromosphere, and associa- A series of six spectrograms of the short-
tion with dark or bright nebulosity. period variable star RR Lyrae well dis-
Observations for determining the period tributed in phase has been obtained by
and radial-velocity curve of the SS Cygni- Sanford with the coude spectrograph. The
type variable AE Aquarii have been con- spectrograms taken at maximum and mini-
tinued. The velocity changes appear to be mum of light show that the amplitude of
regular with a period of approximately the radial-velocity variation given by the
0.7 day. The shape and intensities of the hydrogen lines is about 30 per cent, and
bright lines show considerable variation. that by the H and K lines about 60 per
During the past two years Merrill has cent, larger than that given by other
obtained about 80 spectrograms of long- lines in the spectrum. These results con-
period variable stars with the coude spec- firm those obtained previously with lower
trograph (dispersion 10 A/mm). A num- dispersion.
MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY
13
B-Type Stars
Merrill has observed at intervals with
the coude spectrograph certain Be-type
stars with spectral lines which show anom-
alous displacements, and Sanford has de-
voted considerable time to observations of
B-type stars in open clusters.
Mr. W. C. Miller, in addition to making
many instrumental tests of the 10-inch tele-
scope, has obtained a number of excellent
objective-prism spectrograms on which nu-
merous bright-line objects, some previously
unknown, are present. He has also ob-
tained slit spectrograms of Be stars and
other objects with the 60-inch telescope.
CN Bands in N- and R-Type Stars
An examination by Sanford of "carbon"
stars of types N and R shows that in the
cooler N-type stars the CN bands are weak
in the. violet part of the spectrum and
strong in the red, whereas in the hotter
R-type stars the reverse is true. The N
star Y Canum Venaticorum, for example,
shows no violet CN spectrum, but very
strong bands in the red. The laboratory
investigations of CN bands by Dr. King
and the theoretical study of the absorp-
tion transition probabilities by Dr. Swings
afford an adequate explanation of the
stellar results.
Peculiar Stars and Novae
A cooperative study by Joy and Dr.
Swings has led to numerous very interest-
ing identifications of lines in the spectrum
of RS Ophiuchi at the time of the appear-
ance of the coronal lines. These include a
strong line at A6827 due to \Kr 111] ; a line
at A6914 due to \_A xi] and one at A5536
of \_A x] ; and several lines due to \Fe vn],
[F<?vi], [Xiv], [Gzvn], [Fvin], and
other elements. This is the first identifica-
tion of krypton in celestial spectra, and of
forbidden argon xi in any object.
A similar investigation by Sanford and
Dr. Swings has led to the following identi-
fications in Nova Puppis in the region
A4585-A8600 : C iv, N v, O 1, Si 1, Si 11,
[Xiv], [C«vii], Feu, [Ftfvi], [F^vn],
and possible identifications of N iv,
[M«vi], [F<?x], and [F<?xi].
On April 3, 1945 the recurring nova
T Pyxidis, which had maxima in 1890,
1902, and 1920, was found by Joy to be
three magnitudes brighter than normally.
Spectrograms indicated that the star had
passed the maximum of an outburst sev-
eral months previously. The spectrum was
typical of novae at a late phase. The emis-
sion lines were much wider than those
of Nova Puppis 1942 or of the well known
recurring nova RS Ophiuchi. Of especial
interest is the identification in T Pyxidis
of the coronal lines A5303 \Fe xiv] and
A6374 [Fd'x], the former being the
stronger of the two. Other identified
lines of high excitation are those of
AT in, [Ate 111], [Aterv], [Om], [F<?v],
[F^vi], and [F^vn].
In the course of his examination of pe-
culiar spectra, Dr. Swings has identified
several lines in P Cygni with those of
O 1 and C 11, and a line on Lick Observa-
tory spectrograms of v\ Carinae as the
principal forbidden line of Cr 11. An emis-
sion line at A7155.1 found by Merrill in
u Sagittarii is identified as a low-level
[Fe 11] transition. From a study of high-
dispersion spectrograms of (3 Coronae
Borealis which extend to A3100, Dr. Swings
concludes that no lines due to neutral or
doubly ionized rare earths are present,
although lines of the singly ionized earths
are prominent.
Interstellar Lines
The investigation of complex interstellar
H and K lines in the brighter O- and B-
type spectra has been continued by Adams,
14
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
and about 250 stars have been observed in
the second order of the coude spectrograph
on a scale of 2.9 A/mm. The lower disper-
sion of the 32-inch Schmidt camera has
been used for stars fainter than magnitude
6.5. The most interesting result found is
the rapid motion of some of the inter-
stellar clouds in Sagittarius and Cygnus,
amounting in some cases to as much as
60 km/sec.
Photographs of the interstellar D lines
in the spectra of a few bright stars have
been obtained by Merrill with the coude
spectrograph on a scale of 6 A/mm.
GALACTIC NEBULAE AND NOVAE
Direct Photography
Among direct photographs obtained by
Dr. Duncan with the 100-inch telescope
are two of the Trifid nebula, and one
each of the diffuse nebula NGC 6357, the
planetary nebula NGC 7293, and the dark
nebula Barnard 86 Sagittarii. Photographs
with the 60-inch telescope include those of
diffuse nebulae M 8, M 16, and M 17.
Some star clusters and the short-period
variable star CY Aquarii were also ob-
served. The photographs of the Trifid
nebula and the 86 Sagittarii nebula were
compared with similar photographs made
by Dr. Duncan in 1921, but no change in
the nebulae or the neighboring stars was
detected.
Spectra of Planetary Nebulae
The survey of objects on objective-prism
photographs which show Ha in emission
with little or no continuous spectrum has
been continued by Minkowski. Of 82 such
objects investigated, only 8 have been
found to be Be stars. Most of them are
nebulae, 50 being planetaries and 15 dif-
fuse nebulae. The remaining 9 objects are
stars of peculiar types.
The investigation of the spectra of these
objects is still in progress, and it is too
early to summarize the results. Some
planetaries have been found which show
only the H lines together with mere
traces of forbidden lines. The relative in-
tensity of the [Nn] lines varies widely;
even in nebulae which are similar in other
respects, they may be the strongest lines
in the spectrum or negligibly faint. Such
intensity variations may have to be ex-
plained by variable nitrogen content.
Many of the planetaries are very strongly
reddened by space absorption. A system-
atic survey, which can readily be extended
to limits fainter than that of the available
objective-prism plates, should permit in-
vestigation both of space absorption at
large distances and of the galactic dis-
tribution of planetary nebulae. Of the 9
peculiar stars, 3 are of type B with strong
Fe 11 lines, 1 being a close duplicate of
y\ Carinae. The other 6 are M-type stars
with emission lines of high ionization, 1
showing strong lines of [F^vi] and
[F^vn]. In all these stars Ha has very
high relative intensity; this explains the
relatively large number of peculiar stars
included in the material.
Colors of Faint Cepheids in the
Cygnus Cloud
The photovisual scale in Selected Area 40,
which had previously been used for inter-
comparison of four distant Cepheids in the
Cygnus cloud, has been established more
accurately by an entirely new determina-
tion of both scale and zero point under-
taken by Baade in cooperation with Dr.
Seares. To determine the absorption be-
yond 10 kpc in the Cygnus cloud, nebular
counts were made on a series of i-hour
exposures taken at the 100-inch telescope.
The area investigated on these plates is a
narrow strip at longitude 41 ° between
latitudes +40 and +150.
MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY
15
Shell around Nova Herculis
The shell of this nova, which has been
observed photographically by Baade at
the Cassegrain focus of the 100-inch tele-
scope, has continued its steady decrease
in brightness. The decrease is especially
marked in the emissions of A4959 and
A5007 of [Oiii]. Interesting structural
changes have taken place in the shell
images of the [2V 11] lines A6548 and A6584
and the [O 11] lines at A3727. The strong
[Nn] emission along the minor axis of
the shell has broken up into three distinct
condensations, two at the ends of the
minor axis and one at its center. In the
[O 11] image, which until 1944 presented
the appearance of an amorphous elliptical
disk, the ring structure suddenly emerged
between 1944 and 1945. The [On] ring
has two gaps at the ends of the minor
axis where the strong \_N 11] condensa-
tions are located. Since the same gaps
occur in the [O 111] ring, it would appear
that forbidden oxygen emissions are sup-
pressed where the [iV 11] emissions are
unusually strong.
EXTRAGALACTIC NEBULAE
The successful resolution of the inner absolute magnitudes of these variables are
part of the Andromeda nebula and of the not seriously in error, they should be
early-type members of the local group of observable (at least those with periods
galaxies mentioned briefly in the last report shorter than 200 days) with the present
has brought within our grasp the solution technique. So far the search has been
of a number of important problems. The restricted to M 32 and NGC 205. In both,
technical difficulties encountered in pre- a considerable number of faint variables
cise observations of this sort are many, have been found. Observations in the next
since the optical power of the 100-inch two seasons should make it possible to de-
telescope has to be utilized to its extreme cide whether these stars are the elusive
limits. Progress should be easier in the long-period variables,
near future, however, because of certain Nights on which the definition was not
new photographic emulsions now being sufficiently good for the resolution of M 32
developed at the Eastman Kodak Re- and NGC 205 were used for a search
search Laboratories through the generous for emission nebulae in M31. Emission
cooperation of Dr. Mees. The new plates patches in M31, which were first noted
are sensitized for a region of the near on red exposures taken in 1944, present a
infrared which is free from strong night- problem. Invisible on ordinary blue-sensi-
sky emissions. Thus far, an increase in tive plates, they are outstanding features
speed by a factor of 2 over the emulsions when photographed in Ha light; they
previously used has been achieved, but range in size from giants about 100 parsecs
there is good reason to expect that a gain in diameter to small specks just distin-
of a full magnitude will be realized before guishable from stars. Only a spectroscopic
long. Several nights in the spring of 1945 investigation can decide whether their
were devoted by Baade to tests of the weakness in the blue is caused by selective
experimental emulsions sent by the East- absorption alone, or whether some other
man Research Laboratory. factor is involved. In any event, the gen-
During the year under review, the main erally accepted statement that emission
part of the program was a search for patches are a common feature only in
long-period variables in other members of late-type spirals and irregular systems
the local group. If the recently derived needs radical revision.
i6
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
Cepheids in the Sextans System
The investigation of the Cepheids in
this important dwarf system has been con-
tinued by Baade. Because the nebula can
be observed only during the unfavorable
winter months, the necessary plates are
being accumulated very slowly.
Nebular Velocities
Velocities of 63
extragalactic
nebulae
have been observed and measured by
Humason during the year. The number
of extragalactic nebulae with velocities de-
termined at Mount Wilson now totals 433.
It is hoped that this number can be in-
creased to 500 during the coming year,
after which time the results will be pub-
lished and discussed.
A redetermination of the radial velocities
of the members of the local group of
galaxies, with the highest possible disper-
sion for each object, is under way. Pre-
liminary solutions with the data already
available indicate that the new velocities
will furnish a well determined value of the
galactic rotation.
LABORATORY INVESTIGATIONS
Night-Sky Radiation
A brief reference has already been made
to the identification by Dr. Swings of
the intense infrared radiation in the night
sky observed by Stebbins and Whitford.
The radiation is the (0,0) band of the first
positive system of A/2. Failure to observe
other strong N2 bands indicates a mecha-
nism which enhances the (0,0) band rela-
tively to the other vibrational transitions.
Such a mechanism has been suggested by
Dr. Swings, in which during the night N2
molecules are brought into the zero vibra-
tional level through three-body recombi-
nations. The presence of a fairly large
number of nitrogen atoms in the upper
atmosphere is implied.
Violet and Red Bands of CN
Reference was made in last year's re-
port to the laboratory investigations by
Dr. A. S. King of the relative intensities
of the CAT" bands. Dr. Swings has studied
the ratio of the absorption transition proba-
bilities between the violet and the red
systems, and obtains an estimated ratio
of 87 to 1. This would explain the weak-
ness of the red system in absorption in
the laboratory.
Some astrophysical conclusions are that
red bands of CN should not be expected
in cometary spectra; that no line of the red
system should appear in interstellar absorp-
tion; and that in carbon stars with weak
violet bands of CN there is less continuous
absorption in the red than in the violet.
MAINTENANCE AND OPERATION
During the year, as in the past three
years, the work of the instrument shop
has been very largely upon apparatus for
military use. About 16 per cent of its
time has been given to Observatory work,
mainly for maintenance and repairs. Very
little new equipment has been added. In
the optical shop and the department of
design and drafting the situation has been
similar to that in the instrument shop.
Albert Mclntire has been in charge of
the instrument shop, Donald O. Hendrix
of the optical shop, and Edgar C. Nichols
has carried out the design of nearly all the
apparatus which has been constructed.
These three departments of the Observa-
MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY
17
tory have had to meet the problems of a
great variety of instruments of difficult de-
sign and frequently of unusually high pre-
cision, and have been most successful in
solving them.
On Mount Wilson, A, N. Beebe, super-
intendent of construction, has carried on
necessary repairs and has cared for the
difficulties of transportation during the
winter months. He has also provided for
such construction in Pasadena as has been
required by the government work in prog-
ress. Kenneth de Huff, engineer, has main-
tained the extensive equipment on Mount
Wilson necessary to the operation of the
instruments, and in addition has been able
to give considerable time to work in the
instrument shop.
THE LIBRARY
During the past year the library has
added 299 volumes, making a total of
15,608 in the collection. Of the volumes
acquired, a large proportion are from Dr.
Hale's library, described in last year's re-
port; 48 volumes were purchased; but only
47 were bound because of difficult condi-
tions at the bindery due to the war. The
number of periodicals and serials received
is still small; 27 of these are gifts or ex-
changes, including publications from sev-
eral research organizations in Sweden and
Switzerland. Distribution of the Observa-
tory publications (since 1942 sent only to
the Americas) will be resumed when con-
ditions permit.
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Baade, W. The resolution of Messier 32, NGC
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NGC 147 and NGC 185, two new mem-
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The globular clusters NGC 5634 and
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i8
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
Nicholson, Seth B. A tornado prominence,
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(Review) Five-figure logarithm tables,
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Pettit, Edison. Effect of temperature on the
wave length of a transmission band of
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The co-albedo of the moon. Astrophys.
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Visual magnitudes of Nova Puppis 1942.
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An interactive prominence. Pubs. A. S.
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Occurrence of solar flares where no
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vol. 56, pp. 161-162 (1944).
The total solar eclipse of July 9, 1945.
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Who's who in the moon. A. S. P.
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— Death of Meade L.
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1945. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 56, pp. 165-167,
204-205, 246-247 (1944); vol. 57, pp. 50-52,
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204 (1944)-
GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY
Washington, District of Columbia
L. H. ADAMS, Director
During the year ending June 1945 the of Geology and Geography of the National
Geophysical Laboratory has continued in Research Council, however, one of our
essentially the same program of war work staff members made a brief trip to the
that was carried forward during the pre- newly formed volcano Paricutin in Mexico
ceding three years. One government con- for the purpose of obtaining firsthand
tract under the auspices of the National knowledge of that volcano and of being
Defense Research Committee was brought thereby enabled to advise the National
to a conclusion, except for final report Research Council group that had been
writing, at the end of June; but the work set up to coordinate the volcano studies,
under a larger contract had not diminished At the time this report was written, it
in volume on that date. Two additional became evident that the experimental work
members of the regular scientific staff were for NDRC at the Geophysical Laboratory
given leaves of absence without pay for the could properly terminate in October, and
purpose of taking positions with war agen- that the additional obligations to that
cies, but as before a considerable number agency in connection with its final report-
of persons employed on a temporary basis ing would be fulfilled by the end of Janu-
have supplemented the efforts of the regu- ary; after which the Laboratory will be
lar staff in carrying out the various investi-
gations, the results of which have found
specific application to military needs.
in a position to turn its attention again
toward fundamental research in earth sci-
ences. Comprehensive plans will be made
Closely related to the work under NDRC for a future program; also, at an early
supervision have been a variety of services date, unpublished results of studies inter-
performed directly for the Army and the rupted in 1941 will be assembled. During
Navy. the past year, it was found possible to
It has not yet been deemed practicable to prepare one short paper (described below)
resume any considerable part of our normal for presentation at a scientific meeting and
activities. Upon request from the Division subsequent publication.
SUMMARY OF PUBLISHED WORK
(1083) Relations of lamellae and crystallography
of quartz and fabric directions in some
deformed rocks. Earl Ingerson and O. F.
Tuttle. Amer. Geophys. Union, Trans.
1945, pt. I, pp. 95-105 (1945).
Measurements of quartz lamellae in meta-
morphic rocks of the Washington, D. C,
area and new measurements from the Ajibik
quartzite confirm previous generalizations as
to the relations of the lamellae to the c-axis
of quartz and to the fabric axes of the rocks.
A more detailed statistical study than has
been made previously yields interesting and
significant results. This study is carried out
by dividing each fabric diagram of lamellae
into four zones according to the angles that
the c-axes of the quartz make with the B
fabric axis, and tabulating measurements for
each zone.
The tabulations show that the lamellae are
not controlled by definite crystallographic
planes or zones in the quartz structure. They
19
20
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
are apparently controlled almost entirely by
the stress pattern which determined the
(quartz) fabric axes for the rock. Since the
orientation of the c-axes is also at least in
part controlled by this pattern, there is an
indirect relation between lamellae and the
structure of the quartz.
Lamellae can be important in geologic in-
terpretation in determining not only the
B-axis, but also direction of motion, if the
lamellae and c-axes of the same grains are
plotted. Lamellae can also serve in certain
cases as an index of intensity of deformation.
(1084) Annual Report for 1944-1945.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ingerson, E., and O. F. Tuttle. Relations of
lamellae and crystallography of quartz and
fabric directions in some deformed rocks.
Amer. Geophys. Union, Trans. 1945, pt. I,
pp. 95-105 (1945)-
DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM
Washington, District of Columbia
JOHN A. FLEMING, Director
SUMMARY
The long-sustained effort required for sation amounting to something over
waging a war of world-wide extent con- 500, in addition to use, without charge,
tinued unabated through the report-year of laboratories, scientific equipment, ma-
(July 1, 1944, to June 30, 1945) and ren- chine-tools, and site. On July 1, 1945, obli-
dered impossible the execution of anything gations with the War and Navy Depart-
like the normal program of the Depart- ments and the Maritime Commission were
ment of Terrestrial Magnetism. Military still in effect, involving work of high
and naval operations have greatly inter- postwar priority. It may be sometime in
fered with geophysical investigations re- 1946, therefore, before all contracts are
quiring international cooperation, of which completed and the full normal program of
terrestrial magnetism and electricity are research can be resumed,
good examples. It has not been possible The contractual obligations required
to equip expeditions for field-work in for- over 90 per cent of the services of the
eign lands and on the oceans, to provide available full-time and part-time regular
the much needed data for secular-variation staff of 81 in Washington and at the ob-
studies. Nevertheless, although practically servatories. One hundred and fifty-four
all of the Department's staff have turned temporary employees (including physicists,
attention to the solution of problems con- engineers, mathematicians, computers, ma-
nected with the war, considerable progress chinists, clerks, and guards) were neces-
has been made along certain lines. More- Sary, and the peak number of persons at
over, much important work, the results of tne Department during the year was thus
which are not yet publishable, has been 2^ Besides these, 12 of our regular and
brought to a successful conclusion. 2 Qf our temporary personnel were on leave
Operations relating to national defense of absence either in the armed services or
continued to make use of observational, in governmentai war agencies; of these, 1
theoretical, and instrumental material, and returned to duty at the Department on
of experience of members of our staff, ac- January ^ ^ Many o£ the temporary
cumulated during more than forty years. 1 • 1 -i ui u
-11- * personnel were again made available by
These have involved since August 1040, . . . j • j- -j 1
. b y^ various universities and individual organi-
under thirty individual contracts (at actual , , £
. \ . . 1 1 x . , zations through generous granting or.
cost and without overhead charge) with , r ,
i r^m r o • • r t> i 1 t^ leaves or absence,
the Office or Scientific Research and De-
velopment, National Defense Research ^ x/ , A
„ r . . , • 1 * Review of Years Activities
Committee, various bureaus in the Army
and the Navy, and the Maritime Com- Geomagnetic investigations. The volu-
mission, a total expenditure of slightly over minous tables required to correct magnetic
$2,006,000. The Institution has contributed observations for secular changes, for the
services of its regular scientific personnel natural magnetic variations and disturb-
in the Department, an aggregate compen- ances, and for cosmic variations were
21
22
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
extended to include the year 1944. The
reductions of field-observations to the four
epochs 1912.5, 1922.5, 1932.5, and 1942.5
were completed for over 10,000 stations
on land and sea. Isoporic charts of the
world for declination and horizontal in-
tensity for these four epochs were com-
pleted, and others for the five remaining
elements or components were well under
way. Forty-five isomagnetic charts of the
declination and horizontal and vertical
intensities with indications of anomalies
were completed for the area of the west-
ern Pacific and were printed. Further
useful tests for adjusting isomagnetic
charts to mutual consistency were evolved.
Calculations were made for continuation
of magnetic fields on a plane or a sphere
to adjacent regions of space.
Isolines of equal daily and hourly per-
centage-frequency of occurrence of visually
observed aurora were mapped for the
Southern Hemisphere. The extent and
frequency of expansions of the auroral
zone during magnetic storms are being
studied, using geomagnetic as well as
auroral data.
Cosmic relations. Further analyses of
cosmic data were made with regard to
solar, geomagnetic, ionospheric, and au-
roral correlations. The operational value
of previous conclusions regarding the
effects of ionospheric and geomagnetic
disturbances on conditions of radio trans-
mission and reception was confirmed.
Provision for the maintenance and
operation of the recording cosmic-ray
meters at Cheltenham (Maryland), Huan-
cayo (Peru), Godhavn (Greenland),
Christchurch (New Zealand), and Teo-
loyucan (Mexico) was continued, with
only minor interruptions, in spite of diffi-
culties occasioned by the war. Analyses
of the resulting data must await re-
turn of personnel from war activity. By
1949 the records will include at least a
complete sunspot-cycle for all five stations
— ample for statistical analyses concerning
seasonal effects in different localities, solar-
day and lunar-day variations, and geomag-
netic and other possible correlations.
The Department continued to act as a
clearing house for observations of sunspots
by many observers of the American Asso-
ciation of Variable Star Observers, pend-
ing re-establishment of communication
with the international center at Zurich,
Switzerland.
Terrestrial electricity. Following some
improvements in CIW ionization-meters,
particular attention was directed to effects
of secondary radiation, "volume-contami-
nation," and "wall-contamination."
An important program was begun on
adaptation of electronic circuits to atmos-
pheric-electric instruments in place of elec-
trometers. This has resulted in improve-
ments in investigation of rapidly varying
fields associated with thunderstorms and
in observations under difficult operating
conditions, for example, on airplanes in
storm regions.
Tests showed that the diminution in the
rate of ionization which occurs when
people occupy a room is due to a diminu-
tion in the radon and thoron content of
the air. It is not yet determined, however,
why this occurs. Automatic records of rate
of ionization, for investigation of diurnal-
variation and annual changes, were ob-
tained for almost the entire year. For
equilibrium-conditions the alpha-ray ioni-
zation inside a room was found to be
about double the gamma-ray ionization.
This ratio is about 50 per cent greater
than that obtained from estimates by Eve
for outside air-conditions.
The small-ion content of the air was
found to vary directly as the rate of ioniza-
tion, becoming zero when the ionization
DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM
23
is zero. Results indicate that the recombi-
nation-coefficient between small and large
ions may vary with the rate of ionization.
The alpha-particle stopping power of cello-
phane was found to be much greater than
that anticipated from calculation.
The probable error of a single observa-
tion in measurements of ion-content and
air-conductivity at sea was determined,
from analysis of results obtained during
the last three cruises of the Carnegie, to
be about 12 per cent. The average error
for each instrument also appears to be
systematic and of such a nature as to give
too low a value for the element measured,
perhaps not over 1 per cent in mean
values.
Research on seasonal changes in the
diurnal variation of earth-currents and the
geomagnetic field from 12 years of record
at Tucson (Arizona) was completed. The
changes were found to be consistent with
effects attributable to recognized current-
systems in the ionosphere. Two anomalous
features disclosed, in addition to the regu-
lar seasonal changes, were explained as
probably due, the one to space-variation
in the conductivity of the ionosphere, and
the other to erratic shifts in the latitudes of
current-centers.
Ionosphere. Activities of the Ionospheric
Section were devoted almost exclusively to
military applications. Additional impor-
tant contributions to improvement in radio-
communication circuits resulted from the
continued accumulation of ionospheric
data at Huancayo, Watheroo, and College,
and the five other sites outside the conti-
nental United States. Arrangements were
well under way by the end of June for
two more strategically placed stations.
The active program of research and de-
velopment and the instruction of observing
teams were continued at the Kensington
Laboratory and at several field-stations.
These resulted in design and construction
of improved and simplified manually
operated ionospheric equipment.
Seasonal features of sporadic-!: already
established for the Northern Hemisphere
were confirmed for the Southern Hemi-
sphere. Tests for recurrence-tendency
with the 27-day period of solar rotation did
not show positive correlation.
Further attention was devoted to post-
war observational program and items of
research (see Year Book No. 43). Most
important are (1) completion of the pro-
gram at Huancayo and Watheroo to cover
a full sunspot-cycle, (2) extended analyses
of accumulated data, and (3) new projects
directed toward specific problems which
promise positive solutions in a reasonable
length of time.
Nuclear physics. The 60-inch cyclotron
was in almost continuous daily operation,
without any major breakdown and with
few minor changes, and with almost
automatic operation. A new ion-source
was developed giving 80 to 90 hours of
operation.
In the emergency the cyclotron was
almost wholly used in bombardments for
special researches of the Naval Medical
Research Center and the United States
Public Health Service. The research-pro-
gram utilizing the cyclotron and the
5,000,000-volt static generator for nuclear
physics must be postponed until some-
time during 1946 to meet immediate post-
war needs for radioactivated products for
chemotherapeutic and similar research.
Special bombardments were also made for
the National Defense Research Committee,
the National Bureau of Standards, and the
Department of Agriculture.
A method was developed for making a
stable colloidal preparation of metallic an-
timony which is free from other forms of
antimony.
Observatory- and field -wor\. The com-
plete geomagnetic, atmospheric-electric,
24
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
ionospheric, seismic, and meteorological
programs were maintained at the Wath-
eroo, Huancayo, and College magnetic
observatories. Special studies relating to
geomagnetic, atmospheric-electric, and ion-
ospheric problems were made by the staffs
at each observatory. The atmospheric-
electric program in cooperation with the
United States Coast and Geodetic Survey
at its Tucson Magnetic Observatory was
continued. The Department cooperated,
through loan of instruments and other-
wise, with eight observatories abroad.
Maintenance of international magnetic
standards at the Cheltenham Magnetic
Observatory of the United States Coast
and Geodetic Survey was effected through
the Division of Geomagnetism and Seis-
mology of the Survey.
Though no field-work other than that
at the observatories could be undertaken,
it was possible to assist various govern-
ments, through loans of magnetic instru-
ments, in undertaking new magnetic sur-
veys and obtaining repeat-observations at
established stations.
Miscellaneous. The report-year included
the fiftieth anniversary of the establish-
ment of the Journal of Terrestrial Magnet-
ism and Atmospheric Electricity. That
journal was founded by Dr. L. A. Bauer,
first Director of the Department, and has
been conducted since 1932 by his successor.
In it have been published many of the
original papers of members of our staff.
It has been a potent factor in the promo-
tion and diffusion of geomagnetic and geo-
electric knowledge and progress, not only
in the United States, but throughout the
world as well.
The continued services of three of the
retired staff — J. W. Green and W. F.
Wallis during the whole year and A. Smith
until December 29, 1944 — have been most
useful in the emergency.
Dr. Harry Marcus Weston Edmonds,
who retired in 1930 after 20 years of ac-
tivity in the Department, died in his
eighty-second year at Berkeley, California,
April 4, 1945. He was surgeon and mag-
netician of the Carnegie for several years,
and in command of the vessel from De-
cember 1917 to June 1918. He did arduous
field-work in Canada and constructed and
equipped the Huancayo (Peru) Magnetic
Observatory. He represented the Depart-
ment in its cooperation at the Apia Ob-
servatory during part of the transition pe-
riod after World War I. His record is one
of unselfish devotion and high efficiency
in a long life of scientific service.
Once more the necessarily brief detailed
accounts in this report of our activities
illustrate the team work and professional
partnership so singularly necessary in the
scientific provinces of the Department.
INVESTIGATIONAL AND EXPERIMENTAL WORK
TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM
Those of the staff at Washington chiefly
concerned with geomagnetic research were
Fleming, J. W. Green, Hendrix, Johnston,
Miss Lange, McNish, Scott, Sherman,
Vestine, Wallis, and Wells, with Bern-
stein, Mrs. E. G. Crow, Davids, Shapley,
and Zimmer (until his death February 5,
1945) of the temporary staff. McNish gave
his full time to war problems related par-
ticularly to applications of geomagnetism.
The others named gave the greater part
of their time to matters related directly
or indirectly to the war effort.
Geomagnetic Anomalies
Vestine and Davids developed analyti-
cal and computational procedures for the
analysis and interpretation of geomagnetic
DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM
25
anomalies. These relate particularly to
techniques of geophysical prospecting by
magnetic and gravitational methods. Re-
lations among the surface-components of
field and their gradients were compiled,
and techniques of analysis using models,
Fourier series, Fourier-Bessel series, power
series, and surface integrals described.
These methods do not permit unique loca-
tion of the sources of field from magnetic
data alone, but under favorable conditions
permit useful inferences regarding sub-
surface structure, of advantage in pros-
pecting for certain minerals and petroleum.
Application of the results to illustrative
examples is being undertaken.
Geomagnetic Disturbances and Cosmic
Relations
The geographic incidence of aurora and
magnetic disturbance in the Southern
Hemisphere was studied, using observa-
tions at about 40 auroral stations and 13
magnetic observatories. The position of
the southern auroral zone was estimated
from geomagnetic data and compared
with the results of observations of aurora.
Tentative isochasms were drawn for
aurora observed in absence of cloud, re-
sults being corrected also for the influ-
ence of sunlight on observing conditions,
and they appear closely to resemble corre-
sponding isochasms for the Northern
Hemisphere.
The geomagnetic disturbance daily var-
iation (Sd) was derived for stations in
southern auroral regions. Little evidence
was found of important differences in the
average characteristics of geomagnetic dis-
turbance as between south and north polar
regions, but more observations are neces-
sary, particularly at the auroral zone, where
as yet no observatory has operated, before
a definite conclusion can be reached.
Lines of equal average hourly percent-
age-frequency of aurora were mapped for
the Northern Hemisphere for several posi-
tions of the Sun relative to the Earth. The
region of highest average hourly percent-
age-frequency coincides with the region
of most concentrated electric current-flow
estimated for the average of 40 magnetic
bays of the Polar Year 1 932-1 933.
Vestine and Miss Lange are deriving
the average position of the northern auroral
zone for the various years of the sunspot-
cycle. The statistical frequencies of the
magnitudes of daily departures of the
auroral zone north and south from its
average position are being compiled, using
measurements of geomagnetic disturbance
at stations in high latitudes.
Permanent Field
Davids and Bernstein continued studies
and tests for ensuring greater mutual con-
sistency among isomagnetic charts. Pro-
fessor James H. Taylor, of George Wash-
ington University, completed theoretical
examination of the problem of adjusting
isomagnetic charts to mutual consistency,
the definition of the normal geomagnetic
field, and intrinsic properties of mapping
contours.
Current compilations of magnitude of
major short-period magnetic fluctuations
have been made for results measured at
Ivigtut (Greenland) and College (Alaska).
Tables are under construction to permit
analysis and continuation of surface mag-
netic fields over a sphere, using the method
of surface integrals previously reported.
At least 90 per cent of Vestine's time
was spent on war contracts of the De-
partment, with the Director's supervision
and advice. The main activities may be
listed as follows: (1) Continuation of
work of the previous two years in super-
vising, with assistance of Miss Isabelle
Lange, temporary professional and asso-
26
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
ciate workers. Many of these activities
were along lines ordinarily normal to the
investigations of the Department, so that
this work remains of enduring value in
time of peace. These activities were greatly
facilitated by the cooperation and assistance
of many others of the Department's staff,
and especially by the following: Johnston
and Scott, who generously gave of their
time in providing geomagnetic data; Sea-
ton, with Malich of the temporary staff,
and Corp, who made measurements of geo-
magnetic fluctuations at College (Alaska)
and Ivigtut (Greenland), respectively; and
Harradon, who translated numerous for-
eign passages in publications and who
together with Dove made available almost
daily the geomagnetic data in the library.
Green and Wallis made particularly valu-
able revisions of data on land and sea,
especially in preparing final summaries of
data as corrected to International Mag-
netic Standard. Hendrix and Harrison,
with Doepke of the temporary staff, drew
the necessary graphs, maps, and diagrams,
and Capello and Dove typed and prepared
manuscripts.
Sherman, Scott, and Vestine installed a
visually recording magnetograph in the
field at Sterling, Virginia.
In supervision of work, Vestine and
Miss Lange had the valuable assistance of
the computing supervisors Cooper, La-
porte, Meier, Saltarelli, J. W. Smith, and
E. J. Snyder, of the temporary staff. Be-
tween 40 and 50 others contributed in
temporary technical and computing ca-
pacities.
TERRESTRIAL ELECTRICITY
War research in the Section of Ter-
restrial Electricity continued on a slightly
reduced scale from that of the three pre-
vious years. Nearly all of Sherman's time
was spent on war projects. Torreson re-
mained on leave of absence with the
Applied Physics Laboratory of Johns
Hopkins University for the Office of
Scientific Research and Development and
United States Navy through December
1944, and returned to the Department
January 1, 1945. He then began editing,
compiling, organizing, and preparing ma-
terial relating to the atmospheric-electric
work done at sea on the Carnegie in 1928
and 1929, for the volume Oceanography
III in the series "Scientific Results of Cruise
VII of the Carnegie during 1928-1929."
About one-quarter of Rooney's time was
given to war research problems and the
remainder to Section routine and research.
Gish and Wait devoted most of their time
to atmospheric-electric research but gave
some time to consultations and investiga-
tions related to the war effort.
Atmospheric Electricity
Development of instruments and meth-
ods. Some minor modifications and im-
provements were made in the ionization-
meters (Gish and Sherman) developed
for the investigations of Professor V. F.
Hess. Considerable study (Gish) was
directed to the interpretation of the results
obtained by Hess, with particular attention
to the effects of secondary radiation, "vol-
ume-contamination," and "wall-contamina-
tion." The method of Hess involves the
use of three ionization-chambers of iden-
tical shape but with different ratios of
area to volume, so that the effects of wall-
radiation can be segregated and elimi-
nated from the measured values. Exami-
nation of the data obtained with the three
chambers under different conditions with
respect to the freshness of the nitrogen
they contain, the amount of contamina-
tion probable on the walls, and the type
of direct radiation to which they are ex-
posed, leads to the following conclusions:
(1) The effect of soft secondary radiations
DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM
27
or of some equivalent is definitely notice-
able. (2) Immediately after the chambers
are filled with fresh filtered nitrogen,
radioactive contamination of the nitrogen,
or something producing a like effect, is
prominent for several days. At such times
there is little or no evidence of contamina-
tion on the walls, presumably because any
which existed previously has been removed
or greatly reduced in the process of re-
filling. (3) Following refilling, the "vol-
ume-contamination" decreases as the radio-
active material in the nitrogen diffuses
and is absorbed in a thin film on the
walls of the chambers. (4) After a period
of from 10 to 20 days a condition of
equilibrium is reached in which the "vol-
ume-contamination" is practically negli-
gible. (5) The "volume-contamination"
and the "wall-contamination" are appar-
ently of very nearly the same density in
all three chambers. Hence the funda-
mental idea underlying Hess's method
can be expected to result in satisfactory
data once the nitrogen has aged in the
chambers.
A further theoretical study of the effects
of secondary radiation in ionization-cham-
bers was made (Gish), based on a dis-
crepancy by a factor of 3 in the "Eve's
value" for a Kolhorster penetrating-radia-
tion meter, as reported by Kolhorster in
1928 and redetermined by Sherman in
1942. Assuming that the capacitance of
the meter was determined originally by
comparing the rate of discharge of the
meter with that of a standard instrument
without allowance for difference in the
secondary radiation in the two, the dis-
crepancy can be completely explained if
the secondary radiation in the meter under
test was much greater than that in the
standard and afterward decreased with
time in much the same way as the "vol-
ume-contamination" does in the Gish-Hess
chambers. The validity of this explanation
is supported by the fact that the inner
surfaces of the meter were electroplated
with zinc and that the photoelectric effect
of a fresh surface of zinc is much greater
than that of a surface aged in air.
Adaptation of electronic circuits to
atmospheric-electric instruments. An im-
portant instrumental program begun dur-
ing the year was the further adaptation of
electronic circuits to atmospheric-electric
instruments in place of electrometers. The
advantages of electronic equipment lie in
greater flexibility and power of resolution,
ruggedness, and convenience in record-
ing. A satisfactory amplifier of high gain,
stability, and ruggedness was completed
(Sherman) and used successfully in air-
conductivity measurements over a wide
range of conductivity-values and difficult
operating conditions. Experimental work
on amplifiers for the determination of
other atmospheric-electric quantities such
as field-strength was also begun and shows
promise, particularly in the investigation
of the intense and rapidly varying fields
associated with thunderstorms.
Phenomena of thunderstorms. Toward
the end of the report-year various con-
ferences relating to ways and means of
investigating phenomena of thunderstorms
were held with representatives of the
United States Weather Bureau by Gish,
Wait, Torreson, Rooney, and Sherman.
These point toward an extensive future
program in which staff members of the
Department should find opportunity for
extending contributions in the field of at-
mospheric electricity.
As a result, tentative plans were made
(Gish) for the investigation of electrostatic
phenomena at the Mexican volcano Pari-
cutin. In cooperation with the United
States Paricutin Committee and the United
States Weather Bureau, Gish made a field-
trip to the site in June 1945 to undertake
a preliminary survey, including simple
28
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
measurements of electric field-strength,
with a view to establishing a program for
more comprehensive measurements later
in the year. The work at Paricutin may be
expected to be valuable in developing in-
struments and technique for investigation
of thunderstorms.
Rate of ionization inside a room. The
apparent response of the ionization of the
air to the presence of people has pre-
viously been reported (see Year Book No.
38). Additional information (Wait) was
obtained during the year. The ionization
by two chambers having different wall-
thicknesses was compared; one chamber
with relatively thick walls excluded the
ionization due to alpha particles, while
the other had no covering and conse-
quently included the alpha-ray ionization.
Only the alpha-ray ionization is affected
when people first come into the room. It
is only after a lag of several hours that
the beta- and gamma-ray ionizations show
response. The results are consistent with
the idea that the presence of people acts,
in some manner not yet understood, to
reduce the amount of radon and thoron
present in the air. The effect is too large
to be accounted for on the basis of the
retention of radon and thoron in the lungs
of the people occupying the room.
Comparison of the rate of ionization
due to gamma rays with that due to alpha
rays. The use of the two chambers also
provided a comparison (Wait) of the rate
of ionization by gamma and alpha rays
inside a closed room. For equilibrium-
conditions the alpha-ray ionization was
approximately double that due to gamma
rays for the particular conditions of the
experiment. This ratio is about 50 per
cent greater than that estimated by Eve for
out-of-doors conditions.
Annual variation in the rate of ioniza-
tion of air in a room. A large annual var-
iation in the rate of ionization in one of
the rooms of the Department's laboratory
is apparent from the records of this ele-
ment during the year (Wait). A maxi-
mum value occurs in summer and a mini-
mum in winter. The average value during
the summer is about double the average
value during the winter. This variation
is probably due to the combination of two
factors. One factor is the increased rate of
exhalation of soil-gases during the summer
over that during the winter season. The
other factor is the increased number of
condensation-nuclei in the air during the
winter months over that during the sum-
mer months. It has been found from
test that the ionization responds to the
presence of smoke and other pollution-
products in the air. The rate of ionization
decreases as the amount of pollution in
the air increases.
Relation between small-ion and large-
ion content of the air and the rate of
ionization. From simultaneous measure-
ments (Wait) on the small-ion and large-
ion content of the air and the rate of
ionization of the air inside a room, a rela-
tion among the various elements has been
obtained. The small-ion content of the air
is found to vary directly as the ionization,
that is, a plot of ion-content and ionization
gives a straight-line relation. If the plot is
extrapolated back to zero ion-content, the
line passes also through the zero-value of
ionization, thus indicating that the re-
sidual ionization of the chamber is small.
A plot of the reciprocal of the small-ion
content and the large-ion content is like-
wise a straight line. When extrapolated
back to zero-value of the reciprocal of
small-ion content, the large-ion content is
not zero, but is equal to 1250 ions per cc.
The ratio of ionization to the product of
small- and large-ion contents is not con-
stant, but is highest when the ionization
is highest and lowest when the ionization
is lowest. This ratio, theoretically, is a
DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM
29
measure of the average rate at which the
small ion combines with a large ion.
Alpha-ray stopping power of cellophane.
The stopping power of ordinary commer-
cial cellophane for alpha particles was
found (Wait) to be about 70 per cent as
great as that of aluminum, assuming equal
thickness. According to calculation the
stopping power is only about one-seventh
as great. There appears, therefore, con-
siderable disparity between the calculated
and the observed stopping power of
cellophane.
Errors in measuring the ion-content and
the conductivity of the air. From an an-
alysis of the data on "mobility of the
small ions" in the regular observational
program aboard the Carnegie, information
was obtained concerning the errors of ob-
servation in connection with the measure-
ment of the ion-content and the conduc-
tivity of the air during the various cruises.
It appears that, on the average, there was
a systematic error, both elements being
measured too low. The probable error
of a single observation was around 12 to
13 per cent on all cruises, and that of the
mean generally amounted to 1 per cent
or less.
Geoelectricity
Reduction of the earth-current records
from Watheroo and Huancayo was kept
current (Rooney) and a final summary of
the records from Tucson, covering a com-
plete sunspot-cycle, was published (Terr.
Mag., vol. 49, pp. 147-157, 1944).
Seasonal changes in diurnal variation
at Tucson. Rooney 's study of the seasonal
changes in diurnal variation at Tucson was
completed and prepared for publication.
The seasonal changes both in earth-cur-
rents and in the magnetic field at Tucson
are of unusual interest because of the
location of the Observatory in the transi-
tion-belt, where the type as well as the
magnitude of the variations changes mark-
edly during the year. For the most part,
the changes observed are consistent with
the effects attributable to the recognized
movements of the current-systems in the
ionosphere northward and southward with
the Sun. Two anomalous features, not so
simply explained, are found in the earth-
current records in addition to the regular
seasonal change. The first starts just about
at the winter solstice, becomes most pro-
nounced early in January, and disappears
by the end of that month. It consists of a
marked increase in activity, appearing as a
large increase in the amplitude of both
components without any change in the
phase-relation between them. During the
12 years of recording at Tucson the am-
plitude of variation in January was nearly
twice as great as the average amplitude in
December and February, and only 3 times
out of 12 was it less than 50 per cent
greater. Comparing earth-current and
magnetic records for the 5-year period
1932-1936, a very closely parallel anomaly
is found in the latter. In January the total
magnetic field, F, also increases to a value
well above its mean winter level, with the
variations of the northward (X), eastward
(Y), and vertical (Z) components of the
magnetic field, like the two earth-current
components, all showing the same propor-
tional increase and no change in the phase-
relations between them. Moreover, the
parallelism is specific and not merely sta-
tistical. During the winters of 1933-
1934 and 1935-1936 the winter anomaly
was unusually pronounced in the flow of
earth-currents and equally strongly marked
in the magnetic variations. The interven-
ing winter, 1 934-1 935, was one of two in
which the anomalous increase in activity
was small in earth-current flow, and the
magnetic data were also conspicuously less
affected. This close parallelism effectively
rules out structural features of the region
30
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
as the cause of the anomaly and points
to a space-variation in the conductivity
of the ionosphere as the most probable
explanation. This space-variation must,
moreover, be local rather than zonal in
character; otherwise all stations at the
same approximate latitude would show
similar anomalies. The records from Chel-
tenham do show a slight trace of a similar
increase in activity in January, but those
from other stations do not.
The second departure from regularity
in the variations at Tucson occurs in
March. It is less pronounced than the
winter anomaly and also less consistent
in its recurrence. At this time of the year
the northward component of earth-current
flow is little modified and follows its
normal trend toward increasing amplitude
with increasing altitude of the Sun. The
eastward component, on the other hand,
becomes very small and erratic. Here
again the parallelism with the magnetic
variations is striking. As should be ex-
pected, the curve of variation in Y, like
that in the northward earth-current com-
ponent, is nearly normal, whereas that
for X, like the eastward earth-current
vector, is reduced almost to the point of
disappearance. A simple explanation of
the anomaly during March can be given
by assuming that during March the center
of the northern current-circulation in the
ionosphere shifts to the north of its gen-
eral springtime position and follows a
desultory course which provides an aver-
age passage just over, or slightly south of,
Tucson. This explanation ignores the
cause of such erratic behavior of the iono-
spheric currents and the question why
they behave that way only in March.
There is, however, other evidence that
erratic shifts in the latitudes of these cur-
rent-centers do take place at certain places,
such, for instance, as those adduced by
Hasegawa from his studies of the day-to-
day changes in diurnal variation at stations
in and near Japan. An examination of the
magnetic records from a number of other
stations situated at latitudes not greatly
different from that of Tucson showed no
traces of this anomaly. Hence it is prob-
ably quite local.
THE IONOSPHERE AND ITS RELATIONS TO GEOMAGNETISM
Observations
Existing stations in the coordinated pro-
gram of the Ionospheric Section for iono-
spheric research were continued and one
new station was installed in the Pacific
area. In addition to the established instal-
lations of the Department at Huancayo
(Peru), Watheroo (Western Australia),
and College (Alaska), five other overseas
ionospheric observatories are being operat-
ed. All these stations continued to provide
ionospheric data, using automatic record-
ers giving essentially complete records for
24 hours each day with the exception of
brief interruptions for adjustment or
maintenance of equipment.
The automatic ionospheric recorders of
DTM design and construction have been
in continuous operation at Huancayo
Magnetic Observatory since 1937 and at
Watheroo Magnetic Observatory since
1938. Performance of these instruments
continues to be satisfactory although they
have more than completed their normal
expectancy of useful service. At the
Huancayo Magnetic Observatory the new
ionospheric laboratory was constructed,
with additional facilities for field-intensity
recorders.
Organization of the solar observational
program for the purpose of short-term
forecasting of ionospheric and magnetic
DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM
31
disturbances continues essentially as in the
previous years. Daily reports of solar ob-
servations are received from United States
Naval Observatory, Mount Wilson Observ-
atory, Harvard College Observatory at
Climax (Colorado), and the McMath-
Hulbert Observatory. In addition to the
above, frequent reports from other groups
continue to be helpful in studying the
progress of solar activity.
Research and Development
An active program of research and de-
velopment was maintained at the Kensing-
ton Ionospheric Laboratory and at the
several field-stations. Activities of the Ken-
sington Laboratory were directed toward
development and construction of improved
and simplified manually operated iono-
spheric equipment with a considerably ex-
tended frequency-range. Development at
the field-stations included improvements to
existing equipment with appropriate modi-
fications to assure uninterrupted registra-
tion of ionospheric characteristics.
Construction of four additional field-
intensity recorders was completed; and
these were installed at the Huancayo Mag-
netic Observatory. Subsequent to the in-
stallation, certain specific tests were con-
ducted to determine the effectiveness of
fringe-type E-layer reflections and F2
scatter signals in supporting radio-wave
propagation.
members and of representatives of the In-
terservice Radio Propagation Laboratory
(IRPL) and the Carnegie Institution of
Washington, controls activities of the IRPL
and the CIW as regards radio-wave propa-
gation matters.
During the year two complete teams of
Signal Corps personnel were trained for
overseas assignment and training of a
third team was started. Facilities of the
Kensington Ionospheric Laboratory and
the Department were also devoted to a
program of equipment-development spon-
sored by the Radio Propagation Section
of the United States Army Signal Corps.
Sergeant Peter G. Sulzer was principally
responsible for the development of a man-
ual ionospheric recorder using a 12-inch
cathode-ray tube. In addition, a promising
version of an automatic recorder was con-
structed; satisfactory preliminary tests on
this unit indicate that it may provide the
basic design for equipment which will ul-
timately replace existing automatic iono-
spheric recorders.
Particularly close liaison was maintained
with the Australian and Canadian Radio
Wave Propagation Committees. A com-
plete manually operated recorder was con-
structed and loaned to the Canadian group
for expansion of its observational program.
Canadian and Chinese representatives were
trained to operate ionospheric equipment
and to interpret results.
Cooperative Activities
Fleming and Wells maintained active
participation in the Wave Propagation
Committee of the Joint Communications
Board, and continued to cooperate in a
consulting capacity with authorized Army
and Navy representatives in matters con-
cerning the ionosphere, geomagnetic ac-
tivity, and radio-wave propagation. The
Committee, composed of Army and Navy
Reports and Papers
A paper on "Sporadic-E ionization at
Watheroo Magnetic Observatory" was pre-
sented by Wells at the May meeting of the
American Geophysical Union. The paper
was based on analyses of ionospheric
records for June 1938 to December 1941.
Seasonal features of sporadic-E already
established for the Northern Hemisphere
were confirmed for the Southern Hemi-
32
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
sphere with maximum occurrence in local
summer months. Annual trends show in-
creasing values during 1938 to 1941, sug-
gestive of an inverse relation to solar ac-
tivity. Tests for recurrence-tendencies of
sporadic-^ with the 27-day solar rotation
period did not show any positive cor-
relation.
Postwar Plans
Postwar activities of the Ionospheric Sec-
tion must be preceded by a period of at
least several months to readjust personnel
from highly specialized war activities to
the broader fields of peacetime research.
During this period attention must be given
to assimilation of progress made by other
groups or agencies in ionospheric and
related fields of research.
The general plan for ionospheric re-
search should include both observational
activities at the Huancayo and Watheroo
magnetic observatories and definite investi-
gational projects. Certain equipment, for
example the automatic multifrequency
apparatus — designed and constructed in
1935 and 1936 — needs to be replaced in
view of new and improved techniques
developed since 1940. Because of the im-
pending probable loss of our Kensington
Ionospheric Station on account of building
operations close by and the resulting radio
disturbances, a new field-station and site of
sufficient area to ensure protection against
encroachment of other interests will be
necessary.
The present observational program at
both Huancayo and Watheroo should be
maintained through 1950 so that registra-
tion of ionospheric characteristics at each
observatory may be complete for a sun-
spot-cycle. Subsequent to 1950, control-
observations of a simplified nature will be
sufficient to fulfill civilian and military
requirements for ionospheric data from
these locations.
Important items of postwar research are
(1) extended analyses of accumulated data
and (2) new projects directed toward
specific problems for which positive solu-
tions may be expected in a reasonable
length of time. There are many short-
term projects of a fundamental character
which merit immediate prosecution and
do not involve additional long-term ob-
servational programs. Six specific projects
of this kind were listed in the Depart-
ment's report in Year Book No. 43 (p. 34) .
Personnel. Wells spent several months
in Australia on a war mission. During
this assignment he visited the Watheroo
Magnetic Observatory and conferred with
Observer-in-Charge Parkinson and mem-
bers of the stafL Seaton, of the College
Observatory, spent several weeks during
February 1945 at Washington in special
conferences. He has also been active in
connection with the proposed Geophysical
Institute for the University of Alaska at
College. Ledig and Jones, of the Huan-
cayo Magnetic Observatory, spent several
months at the Department on a rotation
plan, for conferences and instructions re-
garding instrumental improvements and
new techniques for interpretation of iono-
spheric records.
Activities of temporary staff members
were as follows: Hluchan returned from
his Arctic assignment in October 1944,
and subsequently installed the new field-
intensity recorders at the Huancayo Mag-
netic Observatory. Max returned from his
overseas assignment and has accepted other
employment. Peavey returned from his
Arctic assignment and was subsequently
reassigned to a Pacific station. Goldman
returned from his overseas station to accept
assignment as observer-in-charge of an
Arctic station. Ventre made a brief trip
to the Department for certain urgent re-
pairs to equipment. Huebsch, after con-
tributing materially to development work
at Kensington, was assigned to a new
DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM
33
Pacific station. The services of Watts in
the Pacific area have been particularly
helpful in the establishing of new stations
and in the training of personnel. Easley
accepted a second year's assignment to an
isolated Arctic station, thereby providing
an extremely valuable continuity of per-
sonnel which greatly facilitated the per-
formance of this station. Settle was re-
turned from his Arctic station by special
plane as a result of inability to adjust
himself to conditions of Arctic life. Mur-
ray, W. G. Johnson, and Sullivan con-
tinued in their overseas assignments and
maintained continuity of observations in
spite of occasional handicaps due to both
instrumental failure and effects of environ-
ment. Halpin and Stansbury returned
from College after completion of their
tour of duty and will establish another
new station in the Pacific area. Schmieder
assisted in developmental work at the
Kensington Laboratory prior to his assign-
ment to the College station. Other mem-
bers of the College staff, including Wolff,
Malich, Kowalak, Rolfe, Wilder, Bliss, and
E. F. George, contributed materially to the
successful program throughout the year.
Gammon was trained in the use of iono-
spheric equipment and interpretation of
records; he is soon to take an overseas
assignment. D. E. George was engaged
at the Kensington Ionospheric Laboratory.
Shapley worked primarily on the short-
term forecasting program and assisted in
the training of personnel. Miss Hodder
aided Shapley in the successful forecasting
program. Miss Follin engaged in special
investigational work and Miss Puffer in
secretarial work of the Section.
MAGNETISM AND ATOMIC PHYSICS
Cowie had charge of the 6o-inch cyclo- minor changes was fortunate because it
tron with the assistance of Ksanda, P. made available long and dependable bom-
Johnson, Buynitzky, and Mendousse. (Dr. bardments for special purposes.
Mendousse, captain in the French Army, Most of the operation was devoted to
continued to be made available through researches in which this Department col-
the courtesy of the French Military Mission laborated with the Navy, Army, and Pub-
in Washington.) These five men kept the lie Health Service. The staff, laboratories,
cyclotron in operation throughout the and equipment of the Department, coupled
report-year. with the scientific and medical personnel
Tuve, Hafstad, Roberts, Green, and of the above groups and their facilities,
Heydenburg of the nuclear-physics group made possible the organization of well
were engaged full time during the report- equipped research teams. This is very im-
year on war-research activities or in the portant because no one man can meet
Services. the requirements for a clinician, chemist,
As in the past year, lack of personnel physicist, pathologist, and biologist, or do
prevented further improvements to, and justice to an investigation requiring the
operation of, the large static generator in knowledge of such specialists. The assign-
the Atomic-Physics Observatory and the ment of specialists in each field by the
small one in the Experiment Building.
Cyclotron
The fact that the cyclotron was in al-
most continuous daily operation without more interesting results obtained can now
any major breakdowns and with few be reviewed.
6
collaborating agencies permitted rapid and
efficient organization of a team in which
each individual became responsible for a
fraction of the work done. Some of the
34 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
The Division of Zoology of the United (6) White rats, when treated with
States Public Health Service attempted to either arsenic or antimony, showed quite
correlate, by means of radioactive-tracer anomalous tissue distribution. In fact,
techniques, the localization of heavy metals these laboratory animals retained in the
in the body and their chemotherapeutic blood for several days most of the arsenic
activity. Filariasis, schistosomiasis, and and antimony injected intravenously as
other diseases in which the heavy metals sodium arsenite or as tartar emetic, in
serve as chemotherapeutic agents were contrast with the rapid elimination by
studied. Drs. Frederick J. Brady (Acting chicks, cotton rats, dogs, rabbits, guinea
Chief of the Zoology Laboratory), Alfred pigs, and hamsters. This is rather signifi-
H. Lawton, and A. T. Ness took part in cant, since the white rat has been the
this research, some of the results of which standard laboratory animal for arsenic
are as follows: chemotherapy studies for many years.
(i) The blood and tissue distribution Two papers on the results were pub-
of antimony was determined following lished (see bibliography at end of report)
single-dose administration of radioactive and another is in press under the title
trivalent compounds of antimony to dogs "The distribution of radioactive arsenic
naturally infected with Dirofilaria immitis. following intraperitoneal injection of so-
(2) The specific uptake of the antimony dium arsenite into cotton rats infected with
by the adult worm and the subsequent Litomosoides carinii," by Alfred H. Law-
elimination of the microfilarids from the ton, A. T. Ness, Frederick }. Brady, and
blood-stream were established. Dean B. Cowie.
(3) An unexpected high concentration Drs. J. M. Steele, R. E. Smith, and
in the thyroid of the dogs followed single- R. E. Eakin, of the Naval Medical Re-
dose treatment with the compounds of search Institute, initiated a vigorous pro-
antimony. This organ, 24 or 36 hours after gram of antimony research. The medical
injection, appears to have a concentration and military importance of antimony
greater than any tissue except the liver, therapy and the problems which are rising
In two cases, 7 day^s after a single treat- from its use justify the priority given
ment with tartar emetic, the thyroid was this element. The pharmacological investi-
tive highest of all tissues in the dogs. gations of antimony reported above deal
(4) After 12 injections of antimony over entirely with trivalent and pentavalent
14 days, the thyroid was highest in anti- compounds. This Navy group, therefore,
mony concentration of all the 36 tissues is investigating antimony in its two other
studied. Attempts are being made to see valency states, —3 and 0. Stibine was
if this thyroid concentration is related to found to be therapeutically effective against
toxicity or to chemotherapeutic effect. malarial parasites in chick erythrocytes,
(5) Cotton rats naturally infected with and the antimony distribution following
Litomosoides carinii and treated with stibine therapy was determined using
single doses of radioactive arsenic (sodium radioactive antimony. The significant
arsenite) showed a specific arsenic uptake finding of the study was the unusually
by the adult filarids similar to the anti- high antimony content of the red blood
mony uptake by the Dirofilaria immitis. cells immediately following stibine therapy.
The thyroid in these arsenic-treated ani- Studies were made on the chemical fate
mals showed no large arsenic concen- of stibine in the body. In vitro experi-
tration. ments with blood and blood fractions in-
DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM
35
dicate that: (a) stibine, during the gaseous
exchange in the lung, is taken up almost
entirely by the red cells; (b) stibine is
almost instantaneously decomposed, anti-
mony being trapped within the red cells
in the colloidal form as metallic antimony;
(c) this extremely rapid decomposition
of stibine in the red blood cells is catalyzed
by hemoglobin; and (d) this catalytic
action of hemoglobin is apparently unique,
inasmuch as no other biological agent has
been found which will cause this rapid
reaction. The reaction is independent of
the oxygen tension or the presence of oxi-
dizing agents. The conclusion from these
findings is that stibine itself is not the
therapeutically active agent, but that it
serves as a method of producing a high
concentration of metallic antimony within
the red cells. It is believed possible to
establish beyond all doubt the identity of
hemoglobin as the stibine-decomposition
catalyst, and determine the quantitative
relations of this phenomenon.
A method was developed for making a
stable colloidal preparation of metallic
antimony which is entirely free from
other forms of antimony. A nonradioac-
tive preparation was made for therapeutic
testing against the extra-erythrocytic stage
of a malaria parasite in the chicks. Radio-
active samples are being prepared which
will be used for in vitro and in vivo dis-
tribution and metabolism studies.
A series of hamsters infected with Schis-
tosoma mansoni and their normal controls
were injected with radioactive tartar emetic
and the antimony distribution was meas-
ured as a function of time in the blood,
tissues, and parasites. Significantly it was
found that there was a marked accumula-
tion in the liver and thyroid. The adult
flukes also showed this specific uptake.
The orders of rank of tissue and parasite
concentration at 48 hours confirmed in
exact detail the findings of the United
States Public Health Service on the 36-
hour dogs infected with Diro filar ia im-
mitis. No outstanding differences were
found between the controls and the in-
fected hamsters. The marked and pro-
gressive accumulation by the liver and the
thyroid perhaps indicates that toxicity of
antimony may be related to these findings.
Jane Strane, Ensign, Robert Englert,
HA i/c, Louis P. Cecchini, PhM 3/c, and
Morton Harfenist, PhM 3/c, assigned from
the Naval Medical Research Institute to
the Department, have greatly assisted in
the progress of the antimony research.
C. J. Spear, PhM i/c, R. L. Evans, PhM
2/c, L. H. Gordon, PhM 2/c, and F. N.
Gillespie, PhM 2/c, assisted both at the
Department and at the Naval Medical
Research Institute.
Ksanda assisted in many of the radio-
active measurements of biological samples
in the above cooperative research projects.
Buynitsky and Ksanda provided any im-
provements in the cyclotron that were
found necessary during the year and main-
tained a supply of ion-source filaments and
additional target and ion-source assemblies.
P. A. Johnson, with Mendousse and
Cecchini, developed new probe-targets
which permit large beams with maxi-
mum cooling. This work is important
for the operation of cyclotrons, since large
yields from probe-target bombardments
are thereby made possible. Antimony,
phosphorus, arsenic, and tellurium are
some of the newer targets worked on.
Johnson was responsible for the numerous
target-holders and the daily target-supply.
Buynitsky was in sole charge of the opera-
tion of the cyclotron. Since the instru-
ment has been running so efficiently with
little or no trouble, almost automatic opera-
tion has resulted.
A new ion-source was developed per-
mitting 80 to 90 hours of operation. Large,
steady beams are possible with this source,
36
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
which has a direct-current filament supply B. Cowie. "The distribution of radio-
(motor-generator) and a constant-current active antimony in hamsters infected with
network for the arc-current. A paper by Schistosoma mansoni with particular ref-
Cowie and Ksanda describing this ion- erence to accumulation by the thyroid,"
source is in press. by R. E. Smith, Dean B. Cowie, Robert E.
Among other organizations which uti- Eakin, and C. H. Hill,
lized the facilities of the cyclotron were Lectures relating to the collaborative
the National Defense Research Committee, use of the cyclotron in the several investi-
the Army, the National Bureau of Stand- gations were presented as follows: On
ards, and the Department of Agriculture, localization of trivalent radioactive anti-
The administrative officers of the Naval niony following intravenous administra-
Medical Research Center and of the Public tion (see bibliography at end of report),
Health Service, by their encouragement at Fortieth Annual Meeting of American
and assistance, have contributed much to Society of Tropical Medicine, St. Louis,
the success of these collaborative re- Missouri, November 1944. On the cyclo-
searches tron ano- artificial radioactivity, by Dean
B. Cowie, before Biochemistry Seminar,
Miscellaneous National Institute of Health, Bethesda,
Maryland, March 1945. On use of radio-
Besides the reports which are noted active substances in biology with special
above, two Bureau of Medicine of the Navy reference to uptake of antimony by Diro-
reports were prepared as follows : "Quanti- filaria immitis, by F. J. Brady, D. B. Cowie,
tative analysis of antimony evaluation of and A. H. Lawton, at Helminthological
Maren's modification of Webster's rho- Society, Washington, D. C, April 1945.
damine-B method by means of radioanti- As in 1944, the Annual Conference on
mony," by Lois F. Hallman, Lieutenant Theoretical Physics was not held because
(jg); Cyrus J. Spear, PhM i/c; and Dean of limitations of time and travel.
FIELD-WORK AND REDUCTIONS
LAND MAGNETIC SURVEY
The manuscript of a new volume (VIII) pleted. The results in intensity in par-
of the Researches of the Department of ticular have been considerably improved
Terrestrial Magnetism was revised to in- by removing the effects of various geo-
clude results of recent cooperative sur- magnetic fluctuations from the data of ob-
veys in 1944 and the finally compiled mag- servatories and at stations on land and sea
netic data obtained aboard the Carnegie used in estimating secular change. The
during 1 928-1 929 on the last cruise of that results were plotted on large-scale Mercator
vessel. It is hoped this volume may be and polar projections for the four epochs
published in 1946. 1912.5, 1922.5, 1932.5, and 1942.5.
The compilations of world-wide secular Isoporic charts for declination and hori-
changes in declination (D), horizontal zontal intensity for the four epochs were
intensity (H), inclination (/), vertical in- completed, except for minor modifications
tensity (Z), total intensity (F), north near the principal magnetic dip-poles based
intensity (X), and east intensity (Y) on theoretical study now under way.
described in last year's report were com- These new charts show substantial im-
DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM
37
provements over previous estimates of
secular change made in many regions.
There remains, however, some uncertainty
regarding the magnitude of secular change
in certain polar and oceanic areas — a defect
that can be effectively remedied only by
future measurements in these areas. The
sparsely stationed areas have been bridged,
with a degree of success difficult to assess,
by using the line-integral and curl-tests of
potential theory. In this way the D- and
H-isoporics have been drawn so that they
are mutually consistent for the first time
to a good degree of approximation, mainly
by suitable adjustments of contours over
oceanic and polar areas. Care was also
taken to draw the contours in conformity
with singularities present in field — a fea-
ture neglected in previous charts, as
pointed out recently by Chapman. Good
use has also been made of the opportunity
to compare the new charts with one an-
other at adjacent ten-year epochs in arriv-
ing at the final estimated contour-lines
for each epoch in secular change.
Noteworthy features are the existence
of large positive foci in D- and H-isoporics
for the South Polar region, and the great
and remarkable changes both in magni-
tude and in pattern which have appeared
in many regions during the relatively short
time-interval of only 40 years in the Earth's
history.
Isoporic charts for the remaining com-
ponents are in construction and will be
adjusted, in so far as is deemed advisable,
to mutual consistency with the D- and
H-isoporic charts.
Isomagnetic charts of D, H, and Z for
the Western Pacific area were completed,
including magnetic anomalies observed or
estimated in cooperation with the United
States Geological Survey. The isomagnetic
world-chart for declination, in 17 sections,
is nearing completion.
Loan was maintained, as in the past,
of field-instruments and equipment to
seven observatories in surveys in South
America, South Australia, Northern Aus-
tralia, New Zealand, British East Africa,
Belgian Congo, South Africa, and the
United States, as well as to other organi-
zations. International magnetic standards
and corrections thereto were maintained in
cooperation with the United States Coast
and Geodetic Survey at the Cheltenham
Magnetic Observatory.
Tables of departures in geomagnetic
field used in estimating secular change
were extended to December 31, 1944.
Field-Operations and Cooperative
Surveys
Africa. Dr. A. Walter, Director of the
British East African Meteorological Service,
continued observations in Tanganyika Terri-
tory using CIW magnetometer and induc-
tor 13.
Dr. A. Ogg, of the Magnetic Branch of
the Trigonometrical Survey of the Union of
South Africa, Hermanus Observatory, contin-
ued frequent and valuable observations using
CIW magnetometer-inductor 17. In June
1945 CIW magnetometer-inductor 17 was
transferred to G. Heinrichs for use as stand-
ard instrument at the Elisabethville Magnetic
Observatory in the Belgian Congo.
Australia. Chief Geophysicist J. M. Rayner
and L. A. Richardson continued valuable and
extensive surveys in Australia as a cooperative
endeavor of the Aerial, Geological, and Geo-
physical Survey of Northern Australia, De-
partment of Supply and Development, Can-
berra, and the Department of Terrestrial
Magnetism. During June to December 1944,
34 stations were occupied in South Australia,
Western Australia, New South Wales, and
Northern Territory. In this work assistance
was rendered by Observer-in-Charge W. C.
Parkinson of the Watheroo Magnetic Ob-
servatory, and W. D. Parkinson of the Ob-
servatory accompanied Mr. Richardson on a
field-trip September 29 to November 17, 1944.
The results of the survey, with earlier data
3»
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
obtained by the Department, were used to
construct a fine series of maps of declination
covering Australasia.
CIW magnetometer 6 and dip-circle 226
were continued on loan to Astronomer G. F.
Dodwell for use in measurements in South
Australia.
New Zealand. Director H. F. Baird of the
New Zealand Magnetic Survey, New Zealand
Department of Scientific and Industrial Re-
search, continued the active and valuable
survey-program in New Zealand using CIW
magnetometer-inductor 27.
North, Central, and South America. CIW
magnetometer 26 was used by the United
States Coast and Geodetic Survey in exten-
sive resurveys in the Western Hemisphere,
financed by the United States Department of
State.
CIW universal magnetometer 19 was
loaned to the United States Lake Survey
Commission at Detroit, Michigan, for use
in determining magnetic declination.
Major S. Graceras, Chief of the Division
of Geodesy, Military Geographic Institute,
Uruguay, is using CIW magnetometer-in-
ductor 28 in a survey of 60 field-stations in
Uruguay.
OBSERVATORY-WORK
The activities of the Section of Ob-
servatory-Work continued under the direc-
tion of Johnston, assisted by Scott and
Miss Balsam. By far the greater part of
the time during this report-year was de-
voted to work relating to the war. Wait
continued investigations relating to at-
mospheric electricity. Torreson (from Jan-
uary 1 to June 30, 1945), with the assistance
of Mrs. R. M. Crow, was engaged in
preparation of manuscript reporting the
atmospheric-electric results obtained on
Cruise VII of the Carnegie. McNish con-
tinued to be occupied with war-research
work. The various members composing
the staffs at the observatories are mentioned
under the heading "Operations at observ-
atories."
The magnetic, earth-current, and iono-
spheric programs were continued at the
Watheroo, Huancayo, and College observ-
atories. The observations were analyzed
upon receipt at the Washington office.
Weekly summaries of magnetic and iono-
spheric data, predictions of maximum
usable frequencies for various distances,
and current forecasts of conditions affect-
ing radio communications were supplied
various bureaus and organizations of the
government.
Continuous photographic records of the
three magnetic elements and the heights
of the ionosphere by means of fixed and
automatic multifrequency transmissions
were obtained at Watheroo, Huancayo,
and College. Atmospheric potential-gra-
dient, positive and negative conductivity
of the atmosphere, earth-currents, solar
observations by means of a Hale spectro-
helioscope, and meteorological values were
recorded at Watheroo and Huancayo. The
cosmic-ray meter and the three-component
seismograph continued in operation at
Huancayo. During the spring of 1945,
signal-intensity equipment was installed at
Huancayo.
The reductions of magnetic data and
computations in connection with the analy-
sis of magnetic results from Watheroo,
Huancayo, and College observatories were
carried forward. The values of the mag-
netic elements for these three observatories
for 1944 were completed and made avail-
able to numerous interested organizations.
The mean annual values of the magnetic
elements for all days of 1943 and 1944 for
Watheroo and Huancayo are shown in
table 1; those for College, Alaska, are
given under "Operations at observatories."
The collection of data from a network
DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM
39
of world magnetic observatories for use
as a criterion of geomagnetic activity was
continued as in previous years. Those
observatories cooperating supply indices of
activity (range from o, very quiet, to 9,
extremely disturbed) for each three-hour
period during the Greenwich day. Reports
of activity-indices were received from 29,
28, 27, and 27 magnetic observatories for
the years 1941 to 1944, respectively.
tabulated all the X-indices received from
world observatories for the three years
1941-1943. The mean indices were com-
puted and tabulated. Final summaries
were prepared for each of the years. A
short paper entitled "Mean K-indices from
twenty-seven magnetic observatories and
preliminary international character-figures
for 1943" was prepared for the Journal of
Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric
TABLE 1
Annual values of the magnetic elements at the Watheroo and Huancayo magnetic
observatories as based on magnetograms for all days, i943 and i944
Year
Decli-
nation,
D
Incli-
nation,
I
Intensity-components
Hori-
North-
East-
zontal,
Total,
south,
west,
Vertical,
H
F
X
Y
Z
(7)
(7)
(7)
(7)
(7)
Local
mag-
netic
CON-
STANT,
G
Watheroo Magnetic Observatory
1943
1944
3° 04:4 W
3 01.1 W
64° 25:4 S
64 25.2 S
24718
24745
57254
57310
24682
24711
-1325
-1303
-51643
-51693
35745
35782
Huancayo Magnetic Observatory
1943
1944
6 40.0 E
6 34.8 E
2 11.5 N
2 10.3 N
29400
29367
29422
29388
29201
29174
3413
3365
1125
1114
29405
29372
Reports of ^-indices from seven Ameri-
can-operated observatories, as also those
from College (Alaska), Toolangi (Vic-
toria, Australia), and Godhavn and Ivigtut
(Greenland), were compiled and circu-
lated weekly. Fifty-two issues of "Report
of geomagnetic activity" (DTMCIW nos.
389-440) were prepared and furnished to
organizations and individuals requiring
this information.
Summary of magnetic activity for 1944
was completed, including graphing of
American magnetic character-figures and
mean i£-indices.
Johnston, with Miss Balsam's assistance,
Electricity, The regular quarterly reports
of American character-figures and K-in-
dices were prepared for publication. The
five international quiet and disturbed days
were selected for the months of 1944.
The compilation of annual values at
geomagnetic observatories of the world
for publication in the form of a thesaurus
was continued by Fleming and Scott.
Cooperative work in magnetism and at-
mospheric electricity was continued with
various magnetic observatories. Interna-
tional magnetic standards were maintained
at the Cheltenham Magnetic Observatory.
The Department cooperated with the
4o
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
Danish government in operating the God-
havn and Ivigtut magnetic observatories
in Greenland.
Scott made a complete field-station at
the Radio Station of the National Bureau
of Standards, near Sterling, Virginia, dur-
ing November 1944. He also assisted Ves-
tine and Sherman in the adjustment and
operation of the CIW visual-recording
//-variometer installed there in the field-
intensity building. CIW universal mag-
netometer 19 was standardized at the
Cheltenham Magnetic Observatory.
In May 1945, Johnston and Scott, with
Dalke of the temporary staff, made a pre-
liminary magnetic survey of conditions in
and near the "Quiet house" during con-
struction of the Magnetic Laboratories of
the Naval Ordnance Laboratory at White
Oak, Maryland.
Operations at Observatories
Watheroo Magnetic Observatory, Wath-
eroo, Western Australia. The Watheroo
Magnetic Observatory is situated in latitude
300 19^1 south and longitude 1150 52^6 east
of Greenwich, 244 meters (800 feet) above
sea-level.
The Eschenhagen magnetograph was in
continuous operation. Only 6 hours of trace
was lost during the calendar year 1944 — this
due to a failure of the recording lamp. The
scale-value of the horizontal-intensity variom-
eter was controlled, as in previous years, by
monthly determinations using the magnetic
method. Scale-value determinations of the
vertical-intensity variometer were made daily
by the electrical method.
The la Cour rapid-running magnetograph
was also operated throughout the year,
monthly determinations of scale-values of
both horizontal and vertical intensities being
made by the electrical method. The monthly
scale-values for the year 1944 for both Eschen-
hagen and la Cour magnetographs are shown
in table 2. The determinations of scale-values
for declination were: Eschenhagen variom-
eter on October 31, 1944, 1^032 per mm; la
Cour variometer on November 15, 1944,
1 '044 per mm.
Weekly determinations of the base-line
values of the Eschenhagen variometers were
made in the absolute observatory using CIW
magnetometer 7 and CIW earth-inductor 2.
A redetermination of the moment of inertia
of magnet 7L and suspension was made
TABLE 2
Scale-values of magnetographs, Watheroo
Magnetic Observatory, 1944
Scale-values in y/um
Month
Eschenhagen
la Cour
H
(reduced
to base-
line)
z
(means
of daily
values)
H
z
January. . .
February . .
March
April
May
June.
July
August ....
September .
October
November .
December. .
2.43
2.41
2.43
2.41
2.43
2.42
2.43
2.43
2.43
2.42
2.43
2.43
3.15
3.06
3.09
2.96
2.94
3.06
3.13
3.16
3.04
3.18*
3.48
3.53
4.69
4.52
4.48
4.64
4.49
4.55
4.75
4.89
4.78
4.59
4.59
4.60
3.27
3.25
3.52
3.39
3.68
3.70
3.85
3.78
3.76
3.52
3.41
3.52
* Mean value of several base-line shifts.
during July 1944. During September 1944
complete intercomparisons were made be-
tween the observatory standard absolute in-
struments and CIW magnetometer-inductor
18, which has been extensively used by L. A.
Richardson, of the Mineral Resources Survey
of Australia. Mr. Richardson also made a
magnetic survey of the vicinity of the Ob-
servatory, and the results disclosed a remark-
ably uniform distribution.
The preliminary mean values of the mag-
netic elements for all days of 1944, as deduced
from the Eschenhagen magnetograms, refer-
DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM
41
ring the elements to the north-seeking end
of the needle and reckoning east declination
and north inclination as positive, indicate an-
nual changes as follows: declination, +3^3;
horizontal intensity, + 27 gammas; inclina-
tion, -fo'2 (see table 1 for annual mean
values).
As a criterion of geomagnetic activity,
three-hour-range /^-indices, on a scale of 0 to
9, were assigned from the Eschenhagen mag-
netograms and transmitted daily to Mount
Stromlo, weekly to Washington, and monthly
to the Radio Research Board, Sydney. Table
3 shows the mean monthly ^-indices for 1944
for the three-hour periods.
Six magnetic storms were recorded during
1944, and table 4 gives the essential details of
these disturbances.
TABLE 3
Monthly mean for three-hour-range ^-indices, Watheroo Magnetic Observatory, 1944
Greenwich
MEAN HOURS
Mean
Month
FOR
00-03
03-06
06-09
09-12
12-15
15-18
18-21
21-24
MONTH
January. . . .
1.8
1.8
1.9
2.1
2.9
2.7
2.4
1.9
2.2
February . . .
1.5
1.6
1.9
1.9
2.5
2.2
1.9
1.7
1.9
March
2.1
2.0
2.4
2.8
2.8
2.6
2.5
2.2
2.4
April
1.6
1.9
2.2
2.4
2.4
2.3
2.2
1.6
2.1
May
1.4
1.6
1.6
2.0
1.9
1.8 •
1.9
1.5
1.7
June
1.3
1.7
1.9
1.8
1.9
2.1
1.7
1.8
1.8
July
1.3
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.6
1.7
1.7
1.4
1.6
August
1.7
1.9
1.9
2.1
2.1
2.0
1.9
1.6
1.9
September. .
1.9
2.0
2.0
2.1
2.1
1.9
1.9
1.8
2.0
October. . . .
1.8
1.6
1.6
2.0
1.4
2.3
2.1
1.5
1.8
November. .
1.4
1.3
1.5
1.7
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.4
1.5
December . .
2.4
2.5
2.4
2.4
2.3
2.7
2.3
2.3
2.4
Year
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.1
2.1
2.2
2.0
1.7
1.9
TABLE 4
Details of magnetic disturbances recorded
at Watheroo Magnetic Observatory
during 1944
Date
February 7-8
March 26-27
April 2
May 1
September 30. . .
December 15-18*
Ranges
H
(7)
113
154
320
115
77
263
D
(')
20
20
27
15
11
32
z
(7)
147
114
>184
92
88
>197
* Aurora observed.
The continuous registration of earth-poten-
tials using a system of electrodes, which has
been described in previous reports, was car-
ried on throughout the year. Loss of trace
from instrumental causes was small although
magnetic storms and damage to aerial lines
necessitated the rejection of some days in the
tabulations. Scalings and reductions are cur-
rent and the diurnal-variation curves of the
four lines give consistent results. Many poles
supporting the lines were replaced by sub-
stantial white-gum poles and the wires were
tightened. The batteries used for the balanc-
ing current in the recorder were installed in
the lobby of the Atmospheric-Electric Ob-
servatory in March 1944 and are charged
from the direct-current instrument line. The
42
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
conducting lines were regularly patrolled and
defects promptly remedied.
Air-potentials were continuously recorded
throughout the year and the results tabulated
and reduced. Standardization observations,
for the reduction of the values from the
recorder to volts per meter, were made on
January 24, August 7, and December 11,
1944. Some trouble during May 1944 in
the insulation of the collector was reme-
tion, the only breaks in registration being oc-
casioned by maintenance, calibration-checks,
minor repairs, and adjustments to the appa-
ratus. Various replacements of wearing parts
were made as required. An alarm circuit,
connected to the interphone system, was in-
stalled in September 1944 and gives warning
of any instrumental failure which causes a
shutdown of the equipment. Minor repairs
to the antenna systems were made whenever
TABLE 5
Preliminary monthly mean values of atmospheric-electric elements,
Watheroo Magnetic Observatory, 1944
Month
Potential-gradient
No.
selected
days
Reduction-
factor
Value*
(V/m)
Air-conductivity, unit 10 4 ESU
No.
selected
days
X_
(X++X-)
(X+/X-)
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November.
December
Totals and means
1.24
4
7
21
16
24
15
25
25
25
16
18
1.12
114
120
94
73
77
62
82
85
89
92
100
100
10
8
13
24
24
26
24
29
20
27
25
26
1.23
1.32
1.70
1.87
2.12
2.60
2.20
2.08
1.91
1.79
1.62
1.46
1.25
1.22
1.58
1.78
1.96
2.38
1.77
1.64
1.43
1.48
1.35
1.35
2.48
2.54
3.28
3.65
4.08
4.98
3.97
3.72
3.34
3.27
2.97
2.81
204
1.18
91
256
1.82
1.60
3.42
0.98
1.08
1.08
1.05
1.08
1.09
1.24
1.27
1.34
1.21
1.20
1.08
1.14
* Using reduction-factor 1.10 as previously determined, because value observed in January is poor.
died. Weekly calibrations of the recording
electrometer were made. Table 5 gives the
monthly mean air-potentials for 1944 in volts
per meter, using a reduction-factor of 1.10.
Positive and negative air-conductivities were
continuously recorded throughout the year
and weekly calibrations made. Adjustment
of the apparatus was made as required, and
scalings and reductions are current. Table 5
gives the monthly mean values of positive and
negative conductivities, their sums, and ratios.
The automatic multifrequency ionospheric
recording apparatus was in continuous opera-
necessary, and all halyards were replaced by
new weatherproof ed rope in October 1944.
Daily reports of hourly ionospheric conditions
were transmitted to Mount Stromlo through
the Department of Air, and copies of monthly
mean hourly values were sent to the Depart-
ment of Air, the Radio Research Board at
Sydney, the Department of Scientific and
Industrial Development of New Zealand, His
Majesty's Australian Navy, and Washington.
Photographic copies of ionospheric tabulations
were also supplied to various organizations.
Table 6 gives the mean hourly values of
DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM
43
ionospheric data for the calendar year 1944,
and table 7 shows the monthly mean values
for the same period. It will be noted from
tables 6 and 7 that changes were made during
the year in the elements tabulated; this was
in accordance with the decisions reached at
the International Radio Propagation Confer-
logical data were regularly supplied to the
Commonwealth Weather Bureau in Mel-
bourne. A daily journal of weather was kept.
The reduction of the meteorological data is
reasonably current. The year 1944 was very
deficient in rainfall, the total being about 4
inches below the average. Table 8 shows the
TABLE 6
Preliminary mean hourly values of ionospheric data,
Watheroo Magnetic Observatory, 1944
120°
east meridian h
time
(h) (
min 7 max
Z? ^Z7
c 1 r 2
km) (km)
7 min
F2
(km)
f
J E
(Mc/sec)
a
Ic/sec) (Mc/sec) (]\
L
AC/
MUF*
3500
in
km
''sec) (Mc/sec)
MUFf
3000
km
(Mc/sec)
JEs
(Mc/sec)
00
327
318
311
305
301
294
280
270
278
295
219 304
212 315
213 310
214 312
219 306
221 298
287
280
280
293
307
319
325
329
253
248
242
240
239
236
237
247
280
307
318
319
310
308
300
287
273
255
230
229
234
246
250
255
2.03
2.52
2.80
2.97
3.03
3.05
3.04
3.01
2.89
2.58
2.16
1
1
1
3.65
3.61
3.51
3.39
3.26
3.14
3.39
4.41
5.04 1
5.43 <
1.19 5.63 (
1.25 6.07 1
1.27 6.38 (
1.25 6.53 (
1.19 6.57- 1
1.04 6.46 <
6.18 (
5.72
5.03
4.41
4.11
3.87
3.75
3.69
3.7
3.7
3i
3.9
3.5
IS
).£
3.5
3.7
9.8
9.8
9.8
9.7
9.7
9.0
9.6
13.2
0 15.1
9 16.0
>8 17.0
»1 17.3
»1 18.0
»1 18.3
8 18.9
1 19.1
4 18.7
17.6
14.7
12.3
11.2
10.3
9.7
9.6
11.3
11.2
11.2
10.6
10.1
10.4
12.2
15.0
16.8
17.6
18.6
19.0
20.3
21.1
21.0
20.6
20.1
19.0
17.2
14.7
13.2
12.3
11.9
11.6
3.1
01
3.2
02
3.2
03
3.2
04
3.0
05
2.8
06
3.0
07
3.7
08
3.6
09
10 :
3.8
3.9
11 :
4.1
12 :
4.2
13 :
14 :
4.1
4.1
15 :
3.8
16
17
3.6
3.3
18
3.1
19
2.9
20
21
22
23
2.9
2.8
2.8
3.0
* January to June only. f July to December only.
ence held at Washington in May 1944. Scal-
ings and reductions are maintained strictly
current.
The full program of observation and auto-
matic recording of the meteorological ele-
ments was maintained. Coded reports on
weather were prepared and transmitted thrice
daily to the RAAF forecasting station in
Perth, and monthly summaries of meteoro-
monthly rainfall at the Observatory during
1944.
The continued manpower shortage limited
the amount of repair, maintenance, and im-
provement work on buildings and site; how-
ever, all urgently necessary repairs and main-
tenance work were done.
W. C. Parkinson continued as Observer-in-
Charge and W. D. Parkinson as part-time
44
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
TABLE 7
Preliminary mean monthly values of ionospheric data,
Watheroo Magnetic Observatory, 1944
Month
"t
7 max
7 min
hF,
huJ
r 1.
7 max
r 2
7 min
Ft
fE
fc
fp.
/ .
J mm
MUF
3500
km
MUF
3000
km
*Es
(km)
(km)
(km)
(km)
(km)
(km)
(Mc/sec)
(Mc/sec)
(Mc/sec)
(Mc/sec)
(Mc/sec)
(Mc/sec)
(Mc/sec)
January. . .
326
215
218
423
312
294
2.84
4.11
4.66
0.71
13.0
February. .
331
217
218
403
309
282
2.76
4.01
4.62
0.69
13.3
March
313
226
218
400
304
266
2.60
4.10
4.99
0.75
14.6
April
300
233
220
381
288
246
2.39
3.93
4.80
0.76
14.5
May
293
236
224
366
280
239
2.52
3.99
4.21
0.71
13.0
June
294
230
226
365
283
240
2.41
3.93
4.12
0.77
12.7
July
297
223
220
362
275
239
2.41
3.89
3.85
0.79
12.8
3.0
August. . . .
213
289
253
2.59
4.01
4.31
0.79
14.0
2.9
September.
215
297
258
2.49
4.10
4.75
0.87
15.2
2.9
October. . .
217
318
276
2.67
4.27
5.17
0.87
15.9
3.2
November .
218
316
275
2.82
4.33
5.71
0.88
17.4
3.8
December .
226
340
302
2.95
4.34
5.59
0.90
16.3
4.3
TABLE 8
Rainfall at Watheroo Magnetic Observatory
during 1944
Month
January. . .
February. .
March
April
May
June
July
August. . . .
September
October. . .
November
December .
Totals. .
Monthly
total
(in.)
0.01
0.00
0.48
0.34
2.49
1.40
4.37
1.94
0.58
0.14
0.17
0.36
12.28
No.
days
1
0
2
4
11
10
15
10
12
3
4
6
78
Average
for 27 years
(in.)
0.36
0.52
1.04
0.90
2.20
3.30
2.91
2.18
1.25
0.80
0.30
0.41
16.17
Junior Observer. A. Parkes was appointed as
Junior Observer in May 1945. The services
of one technical assistant and one clerk were
made available by the Royal Australian Air
Force. Two mechanics and a yardman were
employed for the greater part of the report-
year.
Grateful acknowledgment is made to the
Department of Air for assistance with per-
sonnel and for courtesy in undertaking the
transmission of records and data between
Melbourne and Washington; the Common-
wealth Department of Trade and Customs
continued assistance in according free entry of
supplies and equipment.
All members of the staff were enthusiastic
and efficient, in spite of great difficulties, in
coping with the ever increasing volume of
work, and they have successfully completed
another year's accumulation of valuable geo-
physical data.
Huancayo Magnetic Observatory. The
Huancayo Magnetic Observatory is situated
in the central valley of the Peruvian Andes
about 8^ miles west of the town of Huancayo
at an altitude of 3350 meters (11,000 feet)
above sea-level, and in latitude 12 ° 02^7 south
and longitude 75 ° 20^4 west of Greenwich.
Automatic recording equipment functioned
throughout the year to produce continuous
records of the following geophysical phe-
nomena: (1) horizontal intensity, vertical
intensity, and declination of the Earth's
magnetic field; (2) atmospheric potential-
gradient; (3) positive and negative conduc-
DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM
45
tivity of the air; (4) earth-current voltages
between four pairs of geographically oriented
earthed electrodes; (5) cosmic-ray radiation;
(6) seismic movements in the east-west,
north-south, and vertical directions; (7)
heights and densities of the ionospheric re-
gions in the Earth's upper atmosphere; and
(8) barometric pressure, temperature and
humidity of the air, velocity and direction
of wind, and hours of sunshine. In addition,
field-intensities were recorded during the last
the annual changes from 1943.5 to I944-5 as
determined from the magnetograms for all
days, referring the elements to the north-
seeking end of the needle and reckoning
east declination and north inclination as
positive, are: declination, — 5^2; horizontal
intensity, —33 gammas; vertical intensity,
— 11 gammas; inclination, — 1'2 (see table
1 for mean annual values). Table 9 sum-
marizes the mean monthly scale-values for the
magnetographs.
TABLE 9
Scale-values of magnetographs, Huancayo Magnetic Observatory, 1944
Month
ESCHENHAGEN
D
(7mm)
H
(reduced
to base-
line)
(■y/mm)
Z
(means
of daily
values)
Oy/mm)
LA COUR
H
(7/mm)
Z
(7/mm)
January. .
February .
March . . .
April
May
June
July
August. . .
September
October. .
November
December .
0.988
0.984
0.986
0.984
0.986
0.992
0.985
0.982
0.984
0.983
0.982
0.984
1.98
1.96
1.97
1.97
1.97
1.96
1.96
1.95
1.95
1.96
1.95
1.95
4.15
4.06*
4.07
4.09
4.13
4.14
4.26*
4.38
4.31*
4.31
4.35
4.34
6.15
6.23
6.10
6.17
6.39
6.12
6.28
6.26
6.26
5.68
6.06
5.62
8.20
8.34
8.48
7.92
7.54
7.77
7.87
7.46
7.46
7.92
7.85
8.00
* Mean value over several base-line shifts.
two and a half months of the report-year
for four selected high-frequency radio sta-
tions far distant from the Observatory.
Daily observations were made of the ac-
tivity in the Sun's atmosphere (with the
Hale spectrohelioscope), of nuclei-counts in
the air, barometric pressure, humidity of the
air, and maximum and minimum tempera-
tures of the air.
Scale-value and base-line observations for
the Eschenhagen magnetographs were made
regularly as in other years, and monthly scale-
values observed for the la Cour rapid-run
magnetograph. The preliminary values for
Weekly calibration-observations were made
for records of potential-gradient and atmos-
pheric conductivity; the potential-gradient
reduction-factor was determined quarterly by
comparisons with potentials measured on a
near-by standardization plot. The preliminary
mean values of the atmospheric-electric ele-
ments are shown in table 10.
Rainfall for the year was 32.00 inches,
about 3 inches over the 23-year average of
29.21 inches. The maximum temperature
for the year was 24?4 C in November 1944,
and the maximum monthly mean was 2i?9i
C, also in November 1944. The minimum
46
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
TABLE 10
Preliminary monthly mean values of atmospheric-electric elements,
Huancayo Magnetic Observatory, 1944
Month
No.
SELECTED
DAYS
Potential-gradient
Reduction-
factor
Value*
(V/m)
Air-conductivity, unit 10 4 ESU
X+
(X++X-)
(X+/X-)
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Totals and means
1.14
1.22
1.16
1.16
52.2
46.8
73.4
54.1
55.8
44.9
45.1
55.8
42.3
59.6
53.6
42.5
3.72
3.58
3.36
3.27
3.95
4.28
3.62
2.37
3.87
4.04
4.44
4.15
3.53
3.69
2.84
3.12
4.08
4.37
4.14
2.57
4.44
4.20
4.75
4.96
7.25
7.27
6.20
6.39
8.03
8.65
7.76
4.94
8.31
8.24
9.19
9.11
57
1.17
52.2
3.72
3.89
7.61
1.05
0.97
1.18
1.05
0.97
0.98
0.87
0.92
0.87
0.96
0.93
0.84
0.97
* Using reduction-factor 1.15.
TABLE 11
Monthly mean meteorological elements, Huancayo Magnetic Observatory,
i944, and corresponding 23-year monthly means, i922-i944
Month
Total rainfall
1944
(in.)
23 years
(in.)
Maximum
temperatures
1944
(°C)
23 years
(°C)
Minimum
temperatures
1944
(°C)
23 years
(°C)
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Totals and means
7.30
5.44
5.38
1.96
0.90
0.06
0.01
0.02
1.61
3.43
1.45
4.44
32.00
4.97
4.28
4.46
2.07
1.16
0.40
0.30
0.68
2.08
2.51
2.76
3.54
29.21
17.74
16.83
17.17
18.43
18.81
19.25
19.09
20.13
19.18
19.83
21.91
18.71
18.65
18.23
18.17
18.86
19.34
19.01
18.93
19.57
19.58
20.18
20.61
19.70
18.92
19.24
5.82
5.99
5.75
4.38
2.23
■1.42
■0.27
1.30
3.12
5.70
4.10
5.47
3.51
6.96
6.96
6.46
5.01
3.02
1.76
0.67
2.57
5.18
5.80
5.94
6.38
4.73
DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM
47
for the year was — 8?6 C in June 1944, and
the lowest monthly mean minimum was
— if 42 C in June (an all-time low for
monthly mean minima in 23 years). In table
11 are shown the monthly rainfall, monthly
mean minimum, and monthly mean maxi-
mum temperatures for the calendar year
mic disturbances was reported in this manner.
All monthly magnetic, ionospheric, and
(recently) field-intensity data were completed
in the first or second day of the following
month and sent by air express to the Depart-
ment in Washington. Monthly resumes of
meteorological data were supplied to the
TABLE 12
Preliminary mean hourly values of ionospheric data,
Huancayo Magnetic Observatory, 1944
75° west
meridian
time
(h)
h
Fi
(km)
h
Fi
(km)
h
Fi
(km)
h
mm
F2
(km)
f
(Mc/sec)
f
JFi
(Mc/sec)
f.
F2
(Mc/sec)
/ .
fl
mm
J Es
(Mc/sec)
(Mc/sec)
0.82
1.01
2.8
1.21
3.5
1.43
4.7
1.62
5.5
1.75
5.3
1.86
5.3
1.88
5.2
1.87
5.4
1.81
5.0
1.67
4.9
1.45
4.4
1.22
3.2
1.01
3.6
0.94
MUFJ
3000
km
(Mc/sec)
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
243
233
217
207
202
200
201
201
211
235
205
226
215
208
205
201
201
199
199
200
207
293
285
283
281
281
285
283
290
332
375
400
404
404
398
383
374
333
340
350
356
344
323
307
300
259
254
253
256
260
267
249
247
302
336
356
378
385
373
356
333
285
252
257
277
276
266
262
263
0.84
1.53
2.41
2.87
3.19
3.38
3.43
3.47
3.50
3.32
3.03
2.72
2.23
1.28
3.94
4.23
4.37
4.43
4.46
4.47
4.44
4.37
4.25
4.11
5.02
4.56
3.92
3.28
2.77
2.38
4.05
6.21
7.18
7.53
7.28
7.11
7.13
7.29
7.54
7.85
7.97
7.98
7.84
7.27
6.88
6.57
6.20
5.63
15.45
14.33
13.05
11.06
9.48
8.01
14.56
20.81
22.35
21.00
19.63
18.93
18.68
19.01
19.83
20.75
21.38
21.88
22.36
20.96
19.93
19.71
19.01
17.11
* January to June only. f July to December only (median values). % July to December only.
1944, as compared with the means for 23
years.
Scaling of traces and reduction of data
were kept current and no effort was spared
to keep all instrumental equipment in repair
and proper adjustment for the production of
dependable records. The weekly broadcasts
of magnetic and seismological data were
made throughout the year; a total of 26 seis-
Direccion General de Comunicaciones y
Meteorologia Aeronautica in Lima and to the
Huancayo military authorities, and in addi-
tion a number of special compilations of
meteorological and magnetic data were sup-
plied to local and other institutions and
persons upon request.
The ionospheric data obtained during 1944
are summarized in tables 12 and 13.
4»
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
The new Ionospheric Laboratory, which
was begun in May 1944, was completed in
November and the ionospheric equipment
removed from its former position to the new
building. The new Laboratory houses the
radio field-intensity equipment, whose instal-
lation was begun in February 1945. New
alternating-current converters for these equip-
ments were installed in the power-plant and
an underground conduit was laid for power-
lines to the building. The necessary antenna
hauled, checked, and adjusted the seismo-
logical equipment, with the assistance of
members of the Observatory's staff. During
April 26-28, Observer William Wiles of the
Magnetic Section of the United States Coast
and Geodetic Survey, accompanied by Com-
mander O. L. Rivera of the Peruvian Hydro-
graphic Office and Colonel Pedro A. Delgado
of the Geographical Institute of the Peruvian
Army, made a study of the correlation be-
tween diurnal-variation observations made at
TABLE 13
Preliminary mean monthly values of ionospheric data,
Huancayo Magnetic Observatory, 1944
Month
itnax
7 min
7 max
F2
7 min
•T2
f°
JE
f
JFi
h.
/ .
mtn
*Es
MUF
3000
km
(km)
(km)
(km)
(km)
(Mc/sec)
(Mc/sec)
(Mc/sec)
(Mc/sec)
(Mc/sec)
(Mc/sec)
January. . . .
220
208
362
311
2.67
4.32
6.15
1.34
t
t
February. . .
214
204
331
289
2.66
4.28
6.19
1.46
March
222
213
343
282
2.59
4.36
7.28
1.46
April
216
206
329
274
2.45
4.32
6.55
1.29
May
214
206
322
285
2.39
4.16
5.27
1.15
June
210
201
327
293
2.50
4.12
4.87
1.16
July
*
201
*
299
2.53
4.09
4.81
1.22
4.50
14.01
August
201
298
2.32
4.27
5.49
1.81
4.80
15.84
September .
204
285
2.41
4.39
6.36
1.74
4.45
18.34
October. . . .
205
282
2.52
4.55
7.32
1.75
5.50
20.79
November. .
206
295
2.42
4.55
7.56
1.86
4.65
21.24
December. .
208
311
2.56
4.63
7.19
1.75
5.40
20.35
Means or
medians
216
205
336
292
2.50
4.34
6.25
1.50
4.88
18.43
* Discontinued June 30, 1944. t Begun July 1, 1944; values of /gg are medians.
poles were erected and antennas installed for
the field-intensity equipment.
S. Hluchan, of the temporary staff, was in
residence at the Observatory, to assist in the
installation and adjustment of the field-inten-
sity recorders, from March 25 to June 11,
1945; he successfully completed a heavy sched-
ule of installation, operational tests, and ob-
servations. F. P. Ulrich, Chief of the seis-
mological field-survey of the United States
Coast and Geodetic Survey, was at the Ob-
servatory between April 7 and 10 with two
Peruvian observers from Lima. He over-
stations in the north of Peru and records at
the Observatory on the days of field-obser-
vation.
No changes in the staff took place during
the year. Paul G. Ledig continued as Ob-
server-in-Charge, except for absence on official
business and vacation in the United States
for over three months early in 1945; Mark W.
Jones was in charge during the period of his
absence. Jones left early in June for three
months on official business and vacation in
the United States. A. A. Giesecke, Jr., and
E. J. Chernosky continued as resident ob-
DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM
49
servers, and T. Astete, V. Murga, and E.
Melgar as clerical assistants. The efficient and
wholehearted assistance given by all these
men made possible the heavy program of
scientific work as well as the construction
of the new Laboratory and the installation
in it of the ionospheric and field-intensity
equipment.
Grateful appreciation is hereby expressed
for the continuing assistance of the United
States Embassy in obtaining free entry for
shipments of equipment and supplies, and in
providing priorities for monthly air-express
shipments of data. It is also a pleasure to
acknowledge with thanks the many courtesies
extended to the Observatory and its personnel
by the Peruvian government and its officials,
as well as by many Peruvian individuals who
have gone out of their way to show their
friendliness.
College Observatory, Alaska. The College
Observatory is located at the University of
Alaska in the zone of maximum auroral
activity, about 5 miles by road west of Fair-
banks, in latitude 64 ° 51^4 north, longitude
1470 49/3 west, at about 381 meters (1250
feet) above sea-level. It is operated by the
Department in cooperation with the Uni-
versity of Alaska.
During July 1, 1944 to June 30, 1945, con-
tinuous records were maintained as follows:
(1) three geomagnetic elements of declina-
tion, horizontal intensity, and vertical inten-
sity; (2) rate of change of geomagnetic
horizontal intensity; (3) height- and pene-
tration-frequencies of the ionospheric regions;
(4) electric field-strength of radio waves from
selected high-frequency broadcasting stations
in the United States, England, and Japan; (5)
direction of arrival and instantaneous field-
strength of high-frequency radio signals. Dur-
ing all or part of the year seismographs were
operated for the United States Coast and
Geodetic Survey and also solar-radiation meas-
uring instruments for the United States
Weather Bureau. Preliminary analyses of
seismograms were completed at College;
these and records of solar radiation were
transmitted to the respective bureaus.
Adequate control-observations and stand-
ardizations for all instruments were main-
tained to assure reliability of the resulting
data.
The la Cour magnetograph functioned
without interruption. Reductions of the
records were kept current. At weekly inter-
vals A^-index figures were telegraphed to the
Washington office, and the reductions were
forwarded monthly. Scale-values have dif-
fered little since installation, those for the
year 1944 being 5'2/mm for declination,
i8.3y/mm for horizontal intensity, and
27.oy/mm for vertical intensity. The pre-
liminary mean values for all days of the
year 1944, as deduced from the magneto-
grams for all days, referring the elements to
the north-seeking end of the needle and
reckoning east declination and north inclina-
tion as positive, are: declination, +290 46^1;
horizontal intensity, 12587-/; vertical intensity,
+ 553957-
Ionospheric observations were made con-
tinuously and summaries of the results were
cabled. Reductions and calibrations were kept
current and transmitted monthly. Informa-
tion on local propagation-conditions was
furnished the Cold Weather Test Group at
Ladd Field for use in evaluation of perform-
ance of emergency transmitters. Certain
changes in interpretation of ionospheric
records and in method of statistical reduc-
tion were made as a result of the International
Radio Propagation Conference.
The ionospheric investigations during the
year emphasized the desirability of continu-
ing this work over at least one sunspot-cycle.
Further attacks were made upon the relation
between magnetic, auroral, and signal-inten-
sity changes and ionospheric phenomena. It
was demonstrated that fade-outs and sporadic
E-layer phenomena occurred with greater
intensity during periods of large magnetic
disturbance, but that neither fade-outs nor
sporadic E-layer ionization led the other in
phase with onset of disturbance.
Seasonal and semiannual changes in
height of maximum electron-density were
found to occur systematically especially in F2-
50
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
and ivlayers, in agreement with correspond-
ing changes at Huancayo and Watheroo.
Observations of direction of arrival of high-
frequency radio signals were made by means
of a Navy model spaced-loop direction-finder
initially at hourly intervals and later at half-
hourly intervals. Observations were made
and recorded manually and transmitted at
weekly intervals to Washington for analysis.
Several aircraft were located and assisted to
safe landings before the installation at Ladd
Field in December of the Air Corps direction-
finder unit. Preliminary analysis of some of
the observations was undertaken at the Ob-
servatory as time permitted. The direction-
finder conference in Washington, in Feb-
ruary 1945, was attended by Seaton, and
results of the work were discussed.
Direction-finder research clearly showed
that a simple statistical approach to the prob-
lem of error-prediction is inadequate. By
means of contours proportional to equal ion-
densities from world-wide ionospheric data,
success of 70 per cent was achieved in pre-
diction of mean direction of wave-deviation.
These predictions were made on the basis of
calculated horizontal refraction from gra-
dient-vectors developed from ionization-con-
tours. Approaches to solution of the problem
from the standpoint of ionospheric tilt are
being undertaken.
Operation of the horizontal-intensity flux-
meter was essentially continuous until May
1945, when the buried coil-system again
failed, apparently because of leakage of water
into the coils resulting in low-resistance
grounding of the conductors together with
generation of local potentials by chemical ac-
tion. The instrument, therefore, is out of serv-
ice until repairs can be completed. Reports
giving summaries of instrumental constants
and reduction of the four largest variations
for each month were transmitted at the end
of each month.
The four signal-intensity recorders func-
tioned without interruption. At the close of
the year Station GSD, in England, was still
being recorded, completing a four-year series
of measurements. During the year Station
WWV, Washington, D. C, was substituted
for German and American stations and gave
satisfactory results except for occasional inter-
ference. San Francisco, KGEX/KGEI, has
been recorded for a year, thus furnishing a
moderately long series of continuous meas-
urements on this location. The remaining
recorder has been used principally for east
coast United States stations, but the results are
not satisfactory because of adverse beam-
directions at the transmitters. Measurements
of field-strength of emergency transmitters
were carried out for the Cold Weather Test
Group at Ladd Field. Reductions to tabular
quantities were kept current at the Observa-
tory and forwarded at monthly intervals to
the Department.
The recording with the automatic auroral
camera was discontinued pending repairs at
Washington during the season of 1944— 1945.
Analysis of the second half of the observa-
tional series obtained in the 1943— 1944 season
was completed.
The second part of the auroral studies
for the season of 1 943-1 944 was completed,
and in general substantiated the results of the
first part. There is clearly a lack of detailed
correspondence between ionospheric phe-
nomena and visible zenith-aurora, although
the gross correlation continued to be present.
Beyond doubt, more refined methods of in-
vestigation are indicated for future study of
the problem.
During the year the University of Alaska
has continued its splendid cooperation with
the Department, making available three
laboratories and two offices in its main build-
ing as well as areas of the campus for addi-
tional installations. The University furnishes
in addition heat, light, water, and general
facilities, all without charge. Living quarters
and garage space are made available at
nominal charges to personnel. The active
interest and support of President Bunnell
and the Board of Regents has been of great
benefit to successful prosecution of our work.
Some time was spent in forwarding the
University's plan for establishment of a Geo-
physical Institute at the University to provide
facilities for postwar research in the Arctic.
If the plans for the Geophysical Institute
DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM
51
develop, provision will be made for inclusion
of much of the present research-program
being undertaken by the Department.
Cooperation with Other Observatories
Cheltenham Magnetic Observatory, United
States. The cooperative program with the
Cheltenham Observatory of the United States
Coast and Geodetic Survey was continued,
using CIW instruments for absolute stand-
Apia Observatory, Western Samoa. In the
geomagnetic program CIW magnetometer 9
and CIW Schulze earth-inductor 2 were used
for absolute observations, /v-indices were
supplied.
Hermanns Magnetic Observatory, South
Africa. Dr. A. Ogg continued the use of
CIW magnetometer-inductor 17 for absolute
observations until early June, when the in-
strument was transferred, after comparisons,
TABLE 14
Preliminary monthly mean values of atmospheric-electric elements,
Tucson Magnetic Observatory, 1944
Month
Potential-gradient
No.
selected
days
Value*
(V/m)
Air-conductivity, unit 10 4 ESU
All
complete
days
X_
(X++X_)
(X+A-)
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Totals and means
26
21
23
20
22
20
20
15
16
20
15
22
62.2
58.9
72.7
50.0
59.9
56.0
51.0
48.7
51.2
46.6
60.8
61.8
23
27
30
28
31
30
27
22
23
27
29
31
2.17
2.23
1.98
2.45
2.52
2.59
2.47
2.34
2.45
2.56
2.07
2.02
1.93
2.14
1.84
2.43
2.45
2.65
2.35
2.16
2.27
2.32
1.77
1.74
4.10
4.37
3.82
4.88
4.97
5.24
4.82
4.50
4.72
4.88
3.84
3.76
1.12
1.04
1.08
1.01
1.03
0.98
1.05
1.08
1.08
1.10
1.17
1.16
240
56.6
328
2.32
2.17
4.49
1.08
* Using reduction-factor 1.24.
ards in horizontal intensity and inclination.
Automatic daily records of cosmic-ray inten-
sity were continued with the CIW precision
meter, through the courtesy of Observer-in-
Charge J. Hershberger.
Tucson Magnetic Observatory, United
States. Through cooperation with the United
States Coast and Geodetic Survey, registra-
tions of atmospheric potential-gradient and of
positive and negative air-conductivities were
obtained, with the assistance of Observer-in-
Charge J. H. Nelson. Table 14 summarizes
the monthly and annual values of the at-
mospheric-electric elements.
to the Elisabethville Magnetic Observatory
in the Belgian Congo for use as standard
there.
Godhavn Observatory, Greenland. K.
Thiesen continued the magnetic and cosmic-
ray programs, ^-indices and magnetic reduc-
tions were received currently through the
courtesy of the Secretary of State, Washing-
ton, D. C.
Ivigtut Magnetic Observatory, Greenland.
Despite the hardships entailed in the opera-
tion of a magnetic observatory under severe
climatic conditions, since the Observatory
must necessarily be located at some distance
52
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
from the mine- workings, S. O. Corp, Man-
ager of the Ivigtut Cryolite Mines, obtained
complete magnetic records. The company
generously donated facilities, electric power,
and services of personnel. X-indices of geo-
magnetic activity were reported weekly
through the cooperation of the United States
Army Communication Services.
Christchurch Observatory, New Zealand.
Director H. F. Baird continued the operation
of the CIW cosmic-ray meter. X-indices were
regularly supplied.
Royal Alfred Observatory, Mauritius. CIW
marine-inductor 4 continued on loan for de-
termination of inclination at the Royal Alfred
Observatory.
Teoloyucan Observatory, Mexico. Dr. J.
Gallo, Director of the National Astronomical
Observatory of Mexico, continued operation
of the CIW cosmic-ray meter.
PUBLICATIONS ON THE "CARNEGIE" DATA
It was decided to publish, as a final
volume in the series "Scientific Results of
Cruise VII of the Carnegie during 1928-
1929, under Command of Captain J. P.
Ault," various discussions of the equip-
ment and operating program of the
Carnegie, and summaries of results and
of difficulties encountered and needs of
future work. Thus the complete series
will consist of 13 volumes, including
Biology I to V, Meteorology I and II,
Oceanography IA, IB, and II to IV, and
Chemistry I. The printing of Oceanog-
raphy IB was completed, but delivery was
not possible within the report-year be-
cause of delays in binding caused by the
emergency.
The master-copies for offset printing of
Oceanography III and IV were 75 per
cent completed on June 30, 1945. Oceanog-
raphy III is devoted to atmospheric-electric
data obtained aboard the Carnegie, and dis-
cussions thereof. The several sections,
following a preface by Fleming, are:
Significance of atmospheric-electric ob-
servations at sea, by Gish; Instruments,
observational procedure, and constants,
by Torreson; Progress-reports, by Parkin-
son; Abstract of log; Tabulated data,
in four parts, on daily observations of
atmospheric-electric elements, diurnal var-
iations, hourly-recorded potential-gradient,
and hourly-recorded air-conductivities, all
compiled by Torreson; and one section of
eight papers and studies by Gish, Tor-
reson, and Wait.
The thirteenth and final volume, Ocea-
nography IV, is entitled "Future magnetic,
electric, and oceanographic surveys." It
contains eight sections: The Captain's
progress-reports, by Ault; Narrative of the
cruise, by Paul; The magnetic work of the
Carnegie and need for future ocean mag-
netic surveys, by Fleming; The Carnegie:
its personnel, equipment, and work, by
Moberg; Gravity-measurements on board
the Carnegie, by Forbush; Note on fluorine
content of ocean-bottom samples, by Shep-
herd; Suggestions for future magnetic,
electric, and oceanographic surveys — a
group of nine reports, by Peters, Torreson,
Soule, Graham, and Seaton; Bibliography
of publications relating to Cruise VII of
the Carnegie, compiled by Mrs. R. M.
Crow.
The thirteen volumes will have pre-
sented in detail the observational data ob-
tained, together with full compilations of
the results, and with considerable dis-
cussion and interpretation by the many
investigators who have given so much time
and enthusiastic support in the preparation
of the volumes of the series. Naturally,
there are many possibilities for additional
discussions and classifications of data, par-
ticularly in the great mass of biological
information acquired. It is felt, however,
that further researches and compilations
DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM
53
and classification of data must be left to
specialists in the various lines of endeavor,
who now have available all the observa-
tional material and results with suitable
notes regarding details for additional study.
Torreson, after return (January i, 1945)
from leave of absence on war research,
was made responsible for additional studies
and final editing of completed manuscripts
for the last two volumes. As he was a
member of the Carnegie's scientific staff
during 1928-1929, his organization of the
material greatly advanced final preparation
of the data and discussions for publication.
Mrs. R. M. Crow has been responsible for
transcribing all copy into a form suitable
for offset printing, has prepared the layout
of each volume, assembled and prepared
bibliographical material, and in many other
important ways has contributed to the
completion of the memoirs of the Car-
negie's last cruise. Preparation of draw-
ings and other illustrations was by Hen-
drix and Green.
INSTRUMENT-SHOP
The work of the Instrument-Shop and other than for contracts involved replace-
the Cyclotron Shop during the report-year ment parts for ionospheric and anemo-
totaled approximately 33,600 hours, of graphic apparatuses at Watheroo, Huan-
which 6900 hours were devoted to the cayo, and College observatories. Minor
construction, maintenance, and operation repairs and modifications were made to
of the cyclotron, and 26,700 hours to instru- several magnetometers and inductors, ion-
mental work. Approximately 22,000 hours counter, and ionization-chambers. All
of the latter involved war contracts, the laboratory benches and cabinets for the
remaining 4700 hours being used for Cyclotron Building were completed except
construction of new equipment and ex- those required in four rooms,
perimental apparatus, repairs and im- The time of the woodworking shop was
provements to instruments and apparatus, devoted to packing and shipping of equip-
buildings, and grounds, and miscellaneous ment and supplies for contracts and requisi-
items. The time for contractual obliga- tions, and to construction in, and minor
tions included 3174 hours' overtime. repairs to, all buildings at Washington
A large portion of the work of the shop and Kensington.
MISCELLANEOUS ACTIVITIES
There was active participation in scien-
tific meetings, conferences, and organiza-
tions by members of the staff, of whom
many served as officers and on special com-
mittees. So far as possible, contacts were
maintained with geophysical organizations
and geophysicists abroad and in the United
States. Many activities related to aspects
of the war effort, and to conferences with
cooperating observatories, organizations,
and individuals in the United States,
Canada, and Australia.
Besides the papers and reports noted
above and in the bibliography following,
lectures were delivered as follows : "Struc-
ture elements of quasigroups, III," by
Duffin and Pate, American Mathematical
Society, Wellesley, Massachusetts, August
1944; "General historical development of
ionospheric research in United States with
particular reference to recent develop-
ments," by Wells, Australian Radio Prop-
agation Committee of Radio Research
Board, East Melbourne, Australia, Decem-
ber 1944; "The geographic distribution of
aurora," by Vestine, Philosophical Society,
54
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
Washington, D. C, February 1945; "The
odograph," by McNish, Philosophical So-
ciety, Washington, D. C, February 1945.
Library. Although the war in Europe
came to a close in the latter part of the
report-year, there resulted no appreciable
change in the international situation with
regard to foreign scientific books and
journals. Although reports have been re-
ceived indicating a reawakening of scien-
tific activity and publication in France
and Belgium, postal restrictions have not
been sufficiently lifted to permit procure-
ment of publications from those countries.
The principal scientific journals of Great
Britain and the Union of Socialist Soviet
Republics continue to be received. In the
case of domestic periodicals, there is still a
dearth of original contributions on ter-
restrial magnetism and electricity, at-
tributable in large measure to the number
of investigators engaged in activities bear-
ing on the war and, to some extent, to
the fact that certain researches, already
completed, may not yet be made public.
The number of accessions during the
year was 415 and the total number of
books and pamphlets accessioned on June
30, 1945 was 27,955. The practice adopted
in the past of cataloguing all articles in
current publications of interest in connec-
tion with the investigational work of the
Department was continued, thus assuring
ready reference to material in the Library
not otherwise easily located.
Librarian Harradon continued as co-
editor of the Journal of Terrestrial Mag-
netism and Atmospheric Electricity , giving
attention particularly to foreign contribu-
tions, preparation of notes, reviews of
books and reports, and the compilation
of the annotated bibliographies of recent
publications on cosmic and terrestrial mag-
netism and electricity published regularly
in that journal. He also continued as
Secretary of the Section of Meteorology of
the American Geophysical Union.
In continuance of the project of making
available in modern English outstanding
contributions to the early history of geo-
magnetism, referred to in previous reports,
two additional contributions, provided
with suitable introductions, were prepared
and published in the Journal of Ter-
restrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Elec-
tricity. These are "Extracts on magnetic
observations from log-books of Joao de
Castro 1538-1539 and 1541," and "The
haven-finding art," by Simon Stevinus.
The list of publications by members of
the Department on December 31, 1944
showed a total of 2302. Because of the
continued priorities given work connected
with the war and the restrictions on mail
to foreign countries, only a partial distribu-
tion of accumulated reprints could be
effected. Complete distribution must be
deferred until some future time.
The facilities of the Library were made
available to investigators from universities
and various bureaus of the government,
and particularly to specialists concerned
with research-problems related to the war.
Interlibrary loans were continued. Infor-
mation on a wide range of subjects, some of
which only remotely related to the work of
the Department, was supplied in response
to inquiries from numerous sources. Cor-
dial relations were maintained with other
libraries and in particular the Library of
Congress.
Dove continued as Secretary to the Di-
rector and remained in charge of the gen-
eral correspondence files and the storage
and distribution of reprints. He typed
many reports and manuscripts and gave
much assistance in proofreading.
Office administration. The work of the
staff assigned to the Administrative As-
sistant again was concerned almost entirely
DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM
55
with the war contracts of the Department,
and related to correspondence, liaison with
various departments of the government
concerned, orders, accounts, and personnel.
A conference was held with Dr. Annand,
Chief of the Bureau of Entomology and
Plant Quarantine, and his assistants Drs.
Dove and Rohwer, regarding tests to be
made with DDT and mosquito repellants
at our station in northern Canada, and by
the Hudson's Bay Company at its posts in
Canada.
Moats, Miss Gottshall, and Miss Der-
mody of the regular staff, and the many
temporary employees assigned to the Ad-
ministrative Assistant, gave faithful and
efficient assistance, without which it would
not have been possible to accomplish the
large amount of work done during the
past year.
The many details of wartime shipments,
inventories, statements of time and costs of
work, preparation of reports and manu-
scripts, and secretarial work for the Di-
rector were completed by Capello and
Dove. Charts, diagrams, and illustrations
for many special reports and publications
were prepared by Hendrix, who with J. W.
Green also did much necessary photo-
graphic work. Filing and arranging of
field-records were done by Miss Balsam,
who with Capello maintained the cata-
logues of photographs and films, and
index-albums of prints.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Adams, W. S., J. A. Fleming, and F. E. Wright.
Progress-report of Committee on Coordina-
tion of Cosmic-Ray Investigations for the
period July 1943 to June 1944. Carnegie
Inst. Wash. Year Book No. 43, p. 53 (1944).
Andrews, H. L. See Brady, F. J.
Bernstein, A. A survey of methods of construct-
ing magnetic charts. Terr. Mag., vol. 49,
pp. 169-180 (1944).
Brady, F. J., A. H. Lawton, D. B. Cowie, H. L.
Andrews, A. T. Ness, and G. E. Ogden.
Localization of trivalent radioactive anti-
mony following intravenous administration
to dogs infected with Dirofilaria immitis.
Amer. Jour. Tropical Med., vol. 25, pp. 103-
107 (1945)-
See Cowie, D. B.
Bramhall, E. H. Auroral photogrammetry.
Amer. Geophys. Union, Trans. 1944, pt. IV,
pp. 592-598 (1945).
Cowie, D. B. The 60-inch cyclotron at the De-
partment of Terrestrial Magnetism. (Ab-
stract) Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci., vol. 35, p. 102
(i945).
A. H. Lawton, A. T. Ness, F. J. Brady,
and G. E. Ogden. Localization of radio-
active antimony following multiple daily
injections to a dog with Dirofilaria immitis.
Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci., vol. 35, pp. 192-195
(i945).
See Brady, F. J.
Davids, N. Calculation of vertical component
(Z) for potential fields from observed values
of declination (D) and horizontal intensity
(H). Terr. Mag., vol. 49, pp. 239-242 (1944).
See Vestine, E. H.
Duffin, R. J. Representation of Fourier inte-
grals as sums. Bull. Amer. Math. Soc, vol.
51, pp. 447-455 (i945)-
and A. C. Shaeffer. Power series with
bounded coefficients. Amer. Jour. Math.,
vol. 67, pp. 141-154 (i945)-
Fleming, J. A. Summary of the year's work,
to June 30, 1944, Department of Terrestrial
Magnetism, Carnegie Institution of Wash-
ington. Terr. Mag., vol. 49, pp. 245-250
(1944).
Committee on Coordination of Cosmic-
Ray Investigations. Terr. Mag., vol. 49, pp.
251-253 (i944).
Researches in terrestrial magnetism and
electricity at Department of Terrestrial Mag-
netism, Carnegie Institution of Washington,
during April 1943 to May 1944. Amer.
Geophys. Union, Trans. 1944, pt. IV, pp.
584-588 (1945).
The fiftieth year of the Journal, 1945.
Terr. Mag., vol. 50, pp. 72-73 (1945).
Nicholas Hunter Heck, geophysicist.
Terr. Mag., vol. 50, pp. 141-143 (1945) •
Terrestrial magnetism and electricity.
56
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
American Year Book for 1944, pp. 760-764
(i945).
Fleming, J. A. (ed.). American Geophysical
Union, Transactions of 1944. Reports and
papers, joint regional meeting, Section of Hy-
drology, Western Snow-Conference, Ameri-
can Society of Agricultural Engineers,
Berkeley, California, February 17-18, 1944;
Twenty-fifth annual meeting, June 1, 2,
and 3, 1944, Washington, D. C. 6 pts., 1065
pp. Washington, National Research Council
(1944-1945).
and W. E. Scott. List of geomagnetic
observatories and thesaurus of values. VI,
VII. Terr. Mag., vol. 49, pp. 199-205, 267-
269 (i944)-
See Adams, W. S.
Gish, O. H. Evaluation and interpretation of
the columnar resistance of the atmosphere.
Terr. Mag., vol. 49, pp. 159-168 (1944).
On theories regarding some electrical
aspects of thunderstorms. Amer. Geophys.
Union, Trans. 1944, pt. IV, pp. 571-575
(i945)-
A curious effect in an ionization-meter.
Terr. Mag., vol. 50, pp. i35-!37 (J945)-
Harradon, H. D. Some early contributions to
the history of geomagnetism. VII. Extracts
on magnetic observations from log-books
of Joao de Castro 1538-1539 and 1541. Terr.
Mag., vol. 49, pp. 185-198 (1944)-
A. G. U. Committee on Extended Fore-
casting. Bull. Amer. Meteorol. Soc, vol. 25,
p. 266 (1944)-
Some early contributions to the history
of geomagnetism. VIII. The haven-finding
art, by Simon Stevinus. Terr. Mag., vol. 50,
pp. 63-68 (1945)-
Harry Marcus Weston Edmonds, 1862-
1945. Terr. Mag., vol. 50, pp. 145-146
(i945).
List of recent publications. Terr. Mag.
vol. 49, pp. 217-222, 283-290 (1944) ; vol. 50,
pp. 83-89, 165-174 (1945).
Johnston, H. F. Mean X-indices from twenty-
seven magnetic observatories and prelimi-
nary international character-figures for 1943.
Terr. Mag., vol. 49, pp. 255-260 (1944).
American magnetic character-figure, CA,
three-hour-range indices, K, and mean K-
indices, KA, for April to June, 1944; Ameri-
can magnetic character-figure, CA, three-
hour-range indices, K, and mean /^-indices,
KA, for July to September, 1944, and five
international quiet and disturbed days for
April to June, 1944; American magnetic
character-figure, CA, three-hour-range in-
dices, K, and mean i^-indices, KA, for Oc-
tober to December, 1944, and summary for
year 1944; American magnetic character-
figure, CA, three-hour-range indices, K, and
mean K-indices, KA, for January to March,
1945. Terr. Mag., vol. 49, pp. 181-184, 261-
264 (1944); vol. 50, pp. 47-55, 131-134
(i945)-
Five international quiet and disturbed
days for January to March, 1944; July to
September, 1944; October to December,
1944. Terr. Mag., vol. 49, p. 209 (1944);
vol. 50, pp. 73, 152 (1945)-
Jones, M. W. Principal magnetic storms, Huan-
cayo Magnetic Observatory, January to
March, 1945. Terr. Mag., vol. 50, p. 155
(i945)-
Korff, S. A. See report of Committee on Coor-
dination of Cosmic-Ray Investigations, Car-
negie Inst. Wash. Year Book No. 44, p. 62
(i945)-
Lawton, A. H. See Brady, F. J.; Cowie, D. B.
Ledig, P. G. Principal magnetic storms, Huan-
cayo Magnetic Observatory, April to June,
1944; October to December, 1944. Terr.
Mag., vol. 49, p. 212 (1944); vol. 50, p. 77
(i945).
McNish, A. G. Changes in the solar-diurnal
variations in vertical magnetic intensity at
the Huancayo Magnetic Observatory, 1922-
1943. Amer. Geophys. Union, Trans. 1944,
pt. IV, pp. 560-563 (1945).
Ness, A. T. See Brady, F. J.; Cowie, D. B.
Ogden, G. E. See Brady, F. J.; Cowie, D. B.
Parkinson, W. C. Principal magnetic storms,
Watheroo Magnetic Observatory, April to
June, 1944; July to September, 1944; October
to December, 1944; January to March, 1945.
Terr. Mag., vol. 49, pp. 212, 280 (1944);
vol. 50, pp. 78, 155-156 (1945).
Rooney, W. J. Summary of earth-current records
from Tucson, Arizona, for a complete sun-
spot-cycle. Terr. Mag., vol. 49, pp. 147-157
(1944).
Sapsford, H. B. Principal magnetic storms, Apia
Observatory, April to June, 1944; July to
December, 1944. Terr. Mag., vol. 49, p. 212
(1944); vol. 50, pp. 77-78 (1945).
Scott, W. E. Results of the Magnetic Observa-
tory, University of Cape Town, 1937-40.
Terr. Mag., vol. 50, pp. 147-148 (1945).
DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM
57
Scott, W. E. Magnetic observatory buildings
destroyed in U.S.S.R. Terr. Mag., vol. 50,
pp. 148-149 (1945).
See Fleming, J. A.
Shaeffer, A. C. See Duffin, R. J.
Snyder, E. J. See Vestine, E. H.
Taylor, J. H. On the determination of magnetic
vertical intensity, Z, by means of surface
integrals. Terr. Mag., vol. 49, pp. 223-237
(1944).
Vestine, E. H. The geographic incidence of
aurora and magnetic disturbance, Northern
Hemisphere. (Abstract) Amer. Geophys.
Union, Trans. 1944, pt. IV, p. 533 (1945).
and N. Davids. Analysis and interpre-
tation of geomagnetic anomalies. Terr. Mag.,
vol. 50, pp. 1-36 (1945).
and E. J. Snyder. The geographic inci-
dence of aurora and magnetic disturbance,
Southern Hemisphere. Terr. Mag., vol. 50,
pp. 105-124 (1945).
Wenner, F. The oersted and the gauss. Amer.
Geophys. Union, Trans. 1944, pt. IV, pp.
598-600 (1945).
Wright, F. E. See Adams, W. S.
Reviews
Harradon, H. D. Magnetism of the Earth, by
A. K. Ludy and H. H. Howe. (Rev.) Terr.
Mag., vol. 50, p. 138 (1945).
American Geophysical Union, Trans-
actions of 1944, edited by J. A. Fleming.
(Rev.) Terr. Mag., vol. 50, pp. 163-164
(i945)-
Wait, G. R. The equilibrium of small ions and
nuclei, by P. J. Nolan and R. I. Gait. (Rev.)
Terr. Mag., vol. 49, p. 254 (1944).
Special Publications
Scientific results of cruise VII of the Carnegie
during 1928-1929, under command of Cap-
tain J. P. Ault:
Biology — V. The genus Ceratium in the Pacif-
ic and North Atlantic oceans. By H. W.
Graham and N. Bronikovsky. Carnegie Inst.
Wash. Pub. 565, vii + 209 pp., 27 figs., 54
charts (1944).
Oceanography — I A. Observations and results
in physical oceanography. By H. U. Sver-
drup, J. A. Fleming, F. M. Soule, and C. C.
Ennis. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. 545, vii
+ 156 pp., 59 %s. (1944).
Oceanography — //. I. Marine bottom samples
collected in the Pacific Ocean by the Car-
negie on its seventh cruise, by R. R. Revelle.
II. Radium content of ocean-bottom sedi-
ments, by C. S. Piggot. Carnegie Inst. Wash.
Pub. 556, v + 196 pp., 47 figs., 10 charts,
14 pis. (1944).
Chemistry — /. Chemical results of the last
cruise of the Carnegie. By H. W. Graham
and E. G. Moberg. Carnegie Inst. Wash.
Pub. 562, vii + 58 pp., 23 figs. (1944).
SPECIAL PROJECTS: TERRESTRIAL SCIENCES
Committee on Coordination of Cosmic-Ray Investigations. Progress report for the
period July 1944 to June 1945. (For previous reports x see Year Books Nos. 32
to 43.)
The end of World War II will make In spite of difficulties occasioned by the
possible resumption of the active discussion emergency of the war, it has been possible
and interpretation of accumulated data to continue with only minor interruption
by the several groups of investigators who the cosmic-ray recordings at Cheltenham,
have cooperated with the Carnegie Institu- Huancayo, Teoloyucan, Christchurch, and
tion of Washington in the Committee's Godhavn. The desideratum of continuous
program. The absorption of so many and homogeneous series of data at world-
cosmic-ray students in war problems again wide and well distributed stations has been
seriously curtailed progress in discussions realized since 1936 or 1937 for four of the
under way, as indicated in earlier reports, stations and since 1938 for Godhavn. Thus
The programs of the groups at the Bartol by 1949 or 1950 the records will include at
Foundation, the California Institute of least a complete sunspot-cycle for all five
Technology, the Massachusetts Institute of stations. This mass of material should be
Technology, and the University of Cali- ample for statistical analyses concerning
fornia may be resumed during the coming possible seasonal effects in different locali-
year. Brief reports for the year ended June ties, solar-day, lunar-day, and sidereal var-
30, 1945 have been received from the men iations, day-to-day changes, world-wide
in charge of groups at Fordham Univer- changes, geomagnetic correlations, etc.
sity, New York University, the University These analyses, together with data on the
of Chicago, and the Department of Ter- higher atmosphere resulting from numer-
restrial Magnetism. These reports, as ap- ous determinations above different points
pended, show good progress. Dr. Korff, on the Earth's surface and parallel coordi-
of New York University, reports on re- nated researches in the laboratory, will cer-
search on counters, on measurements of tainly improve understanding and inter-
neutrons produced by cosmic radiation, pretation of cosmic radiation,
and on construction of a narrow-angle A request has been received from Pro-
wide-aperture cosmic-ray telescope. Dr. fessor Amadore Cobas, head of the De-
Hess, of Fordham University, details meas- partment of Physics of the University of
urements and interpretations of studies Puerto Rico, for the loan of a meter to
of atmospheric ionization. Mr. Forbush record near San Juan. It may be recalled
and Miss Lange, of the Department of that the region of Puerto Rico was one
Terrestrial Magnetism, report on routine considered at the beginning of the Corn-
handling of records. Professor Schein, of mittee's program; the station at Teoloyu-
the group at the University of Chicago, can, Mexico, in about the same geographic
reports on research on intermediate par- and geomagnetic latitudes, was then se-
ticles and on mesotron production in the lected instead of Puerto Rico. Because of
stratosphere. the apparently somewhat anomalous data
1 -c, c , recorded at Teoloyucan, it is desirable, if
1 tor statement on formation, purposes, and J
policies of the Committee see Year Book No. 38 possible, to provide equipment for Puerto
(1938-1939), pp. 335-349. Rico. The Committee is now considering
59
6o
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
this matter. No other applications for
grants or loans of equipment have been
received.
Grateful acknowledgment must again
be made to the directors and members
of organizations which continued contri-
butions of services and laboratories. Those
so aiding the program are: the Danish
Meteorological Institute; the National As-
tronomical Observatory of Mexico; the
New Zealand Department of Scientific
and Industrial Research; and the United
States Coast and Geodetic Survey. The
forwarding of supplies for maintenance
of the station at Godhavn has been aided
by the Consul-General of Denmark in
New York and the United States Coast
Guard.
W. S. Adams
J. A. Fleming, Chairman
F. E. Wright
Statistical Investigations of Cosmic-Ray
Variations at Department of
Terrestrial Magnetism
S. E. FORBUSH AND IsABELLE LANGE
Instruments. The precision cosmic-ray
meters of the Carnegie Institution of
Washington were continuously operated
at the following stations: Cheltenham
(Maryland, United States) Magnetic Ob-
servatory of the United States Coast and
Geodetic Survey, meter C-i, John Hersh-
berger in charge; Huancayo (Peru) Mag-
netic Observatory of the Department of
Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institu-
tion of Washington, meter C-2, P. G.
Ledig in charge; National Astronomical
Observatory of Mexico at Teoloyucan (D.
F., Mexico), meter C-4, Dr. Joaquin Gallo
in charge; Amberley Branch of the Christ-
church (New Zealand) Magnetic Ob-
servatory of the Department of Scientific
and Industrial Research, meter C-5, J. W.
Beagley in charge; Godhavn (Greenland)
Magnetic Observatory of the Danish
Meteorological Institute, meter C-6, K.
Thiesen in charge.
Reduction of data. Owing to pressure
of war work it was not possible to keep
current the tabulations of hourly values of
cosmic-ray ionization, bursts, and baro-
metric pressure.
War work engaged the full time of Miss
Lange and Mr. Forbush and permitted
only the routine handling of records and
assistance in the maintenance of meter
C-i at Cheltenham. Of the Institution's
five cosmic-ray meters at the above sta-
tions, four have been in operation since
the middle of 1936 or before. This con-
tinuous series of data, covering nearly a
complete sunspot-cycle, should, on analysis,
provide a better basis for interpreting the
causes for the correlations between changes
in cosmic-ray intensity and those in the
Earth's external magnetic field.
Studies of Atmospheric Ionization at
Fordham University
Victor F. Hess
Measurements with the improved type
of Gish-Hess ionization-meter, constructed
by the Department of Terrestrial Magnet-
ism of the Carnegie Institution of Wash-
ington, were made in the summer and
fall of 1944 and in the spring of 1945.
They were made on a wooden pier 80
meters offshore in New York, at Spray
Beach (New Jersey), and at different
localities in the suburbs of New York.
These measurements are being continued
and a complete report will be prepared
later.
A special study of the effect of evacuat-
ing and refilling of the ionization-vessels
with dry, filtered nitrogen was made, and
it was found that a small initial drop in
ionization by 0.5 to 1.0 / after refilling is
due to a temporary removal of a gas-
SPECIAL PROJECTS: TERRESTRIAL SCIENCES
61
layer from the walls. It takes several
days — up to 10 — to re-establish the normal
ionization in the chambers.
Plotting the ionization (q) against ratio
of surface to volume of each chamber
(A/W) gives a straight line, the intercept
of which with the ordinate of ionization
allows one to deduce the actual ionization
without the wall-effect.
A similar procedure was adopted for the
determination of Eve's constant (K —
number of ion-pairs produced by i gram
of radium per cc and sec at unit-distance)
with all three chambers. The smallest
chamber shows the largest value of K.
The results as graphed show that K has
a linear relation to (A/W), and extra-
polation for (A/W) — o gives the value
of K for the free atmosphere as 4.6 X io9
ion-pairs per gram radium, per cc and sec
in nitrogen at normal temperature and
pressure — in fairly good agreement with
other methods. This new method of de-
termining K was reported at the annual
meeting of the American Geophysical
Union on May 31, 1945, by V. F. Hess
and Eva Balling.
The new ionization-meter is also verv
useful in determining the radium content
of the human body by its gamma-ray
effect. In the radium industry technicians
and workers sometimes acquire a certain
permanent contamination with radium
amounting to several micrograms of ra-
dium. The Gish-Hess meter, when cali-
brated with a i-microgram radium stand-
ard preparation at different distances
within a "water-phantom" of the hu-
man body, allows detection of 0.2 micro-
gram of radium. This instrument there-
fore will be helpful in detecting incipient
radium poisoning in workers and in study-
ing the changes with time in the radium
burden of individuals.
Cosmic-Ray Research at New York
University
S. A. Korff
During the year July 1, 1944 to June 30,
1945, it was found possible to carry on
some cosmic-ray research at New York
University, in spite of the heavy demands
which the war effort placed on the time
of all persons concerned. The investiga-
tions described below were supported in
part by funds administered by the Car-
negie Institution of Washington.
Research on counters. The study of the
properties of Geiger counters, described
in previous reports, was continued. Some
experiments were undertaken to determine
whether any design could be devised which
would reduce the operating potential and
at the same time provide an arrangement
capable of obtaining coincidence-counts.
A new type of counter employing a grid
surrounding the central wire was devel-
oped. The central wire had a glass bead
at its center. It was found that the unit
operated as two separate counters within
the same outer envelope. The two sec-
tions of the counter separated by the bead
discharged independently, and, in addition,
counts of double height were observed
when the two sections discharged simul-
taneously. The effect of adding the grid
around the central wire was to reduce the
operating potential. Experiments showed
that considerable economies in operating
voltage were attainable by this arrange-
ment. For example, a counter which re-
quired 1500 volts in the absence of a grid
would operate successfully on about 800
when equipped with the additional elec-
trode. This development promises to be
of considerable value in those counters in
which high operating potentials are a dis-
tinct drawback. The combination of the
bead on the central wire and the grid is a
new contribution to counter-technique.
62
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
Measurements of neutrons produced by
cosmic radiation. The study of the neu-
tron component of the cosmic radiation
was continued. A new device was built,
consisting of a neutron-counter and ad-
justable cadmium and boron shields. The
shields were automatically slipped over
the counter and then removed at pre-
determined time-intervals by a small elec-
tric motor. The apparatus is at present
undergoing tests. It is planned to adapt
this instrument to high-altitude work.
Construction of a narrow-angle wide-
aperture cosmic-ray telescope. In previous
reports we have described theoretical cal-
culations which we have made which per-
mit new information about the production-
levels and lifetime of the mesotron to be
inferred from a study of the vertical cos-
mic-ray intensity at sea-level and the
meteorological variables in the column of
air above the instrument. The device for
the experimental test of the predictions is
now under construction. For this purpose,
a narrow-angle, wide-aperture cosmic-ray
telescope is being built. This telescope will
employ a large number of counters which
use a bead at the center of the wire, and
thus provide a coincidence-device within a
single envelope. The vertical intensity of
the cosmic radiation will be measured with
this telescope, at the same time that the
meteorological data are obtained from
near-by radiosondes. This device will next
be used to determine the angular distribu-
tion and thus provide the data necessary
to interpret the results obtained with the
large Millikan and Compton meters which
integrate the intensity received from all
directions.
Personnel. K. Kupferberg and F. Reines
carried out the theoretical analysis of the
correlations between cosmic radiation and
meteorological variables. A. Krumbein is
constructing the vertical telescope. Dr. B.
Hamermesh is assisting with the work on
neutron-counters.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Korff, S. A. Experiments on counters with grids.
Phys. Rev., vol. 63, p. 58 (1945).
D. K. Bailey, and E. T. Clarke. Re-
port on cosmic-ray observations made on
the United States Antarctic Service Expe-
dition, 1939-1941. Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc,
vol. 89, pp. 316-323 (1945).
Cosmic-Ray Research at the University
of Chicago
Marcel Schein
Intermediate particles. New investiga-
tions are now in progress to obtain addi-
tional evidence for the existence of meso-
trons with a mass smaller than 200 elec-
tronic masses. For this purpose a special
magnet-cloud-chamber apparatus has been
constructed by Marcel Schein and A. J.
Hartzler. By means of electronic circuits,
the expansion of this chamber is controlled
either by the passage of a cosmic-ray par-
ticle or by the injection of electrons into
a large induction accelerator (betatron).
The results of these investigations will be
published later.
Mesotron production in the stratosphere.
The balloon experiments on the produc-
tion of mesotrons in paraffin and lead were
continued by Marcel Schein, William G.
Stroud, Jr., and F. Allen. The apparatus
consisted of a number of counter-telescopes
registering the simultaneous passage of
several cosmic-ray particles through the
paraffin or lead. Some of these outfits had
an over-all weight of more than 60 pounds.
Hence a larger number of balloons (45)
had to be used to lift them into the
stratosphere. The results of these experi-
ments show that multiple mesotrons, or
so-called mesotron showers, are abundantly
produced by the impact of primary cosmic-
ray particles (protons) upon atomic nuclei.
SPECIAL PROJECTS: TERRESTRIAL SCIENCES
63
This process takes place, predominantly,
close to the top of the atmosphere. The
cross-section for mesotron production in
paraffin was measured and found to be
io-24 cm2 (per nucleus). The mesotrons
produced are knocked out in the forward
direction with an average angular spread
of 90 to 200. The frequency of these
processes as a function of atmospheric
pressure approximately follows an ex-
ponential law, indicating that the meso-
tron showers in paraffin are produced
rather in a single act than by successive
impacts as assumed by Hamilton, Heitler,
and Peng.
Results of a similar nature were obtained
in lead. The number of mesotron showers
found below a lead thickness of 18 cm was
very abundant at high altitudes. A de-
tailed analysis of these results is now in
progress.
A simplified theory of cosmic-ray phe-
nomena at high altitudes was worked out
by I. Bloch. Starting with the idea of
primary protons, the production and ab-
sorption of mesotrons was calculated as a
function of altitude and latitude. The
theoretical results were compared with the
experimental data on the intensity of the
hard component and the production of
mesotrons in the stratosphere. This com-
parison strongly indicates that the multi-
plicity of mesotron production is 9 for pri-
maries of an energy higher than 7 X io9
electron-volts. For lower energies the mul-
tiplicity decreases with energy. To account
for the large number of electrons present
at the very high altitudes, it was assumed
that in addition to mesotrons of the usual
type there exist intermediate particles of
extremely low stability (with a mean life
of about io"9 second). These particles
should then decay into electrons and neu-
trinos close to the point of their creation,
giving rise to the high-altitude soft com-
ponent.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Auger, P., A. Rogozinski, and Marcel Schein.
Investigation of extensive atmospheric show-
ers in the stratosphere. (Abstract) Phys.
Rev., vol. 67, p. 62 (1945).
Kingshill, Konrad L., and L. G. Lewis. In-
vestigation of bursts observed in two thin-
walled ionization chambers. (Abstract)
Phys. Rev., vol. 67, p. 62 (1945).
Lewis, Lloyd G. Study of cosmic-ray air show-
ers with the method of coincident bursts in
two unshielded ionization chambers. Phys.
Rev., vol. 67, pp. 228-237 (i945)-
Stroud, W. G., and Marcel Schein. The mul-
tiple production of mesotrons in paraffin at
high altitudes. (Abstract) Phys. Rev., vol.
67, p. 62 (1945).
Tab-in, Julius. Production of single mesotrons
by non-ionizing radiation at altitudes of
10,600 feet and 14,200 feet. Phys. Rev., vol.
66, pp. 86-91 (1944).
Wolfenstein, Lincoln. Theoretical calculations
on extensive atmospheric cosmic-ray showers.
Phys. Rev., vol. 67, pp. 238-247 (1945).
DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY
Central Laboratory located at Stanford University, California
H. A. SPOEHR, Chairman
Two major research projects which were plants have been examined and have
prompted primarily by the desire to make yielded material which, after exposure to
a contribution to the war effort have taken air and light, exhibits antibiotic properties
the entire attention of the staff during similar to those derived from Chlorella
the past year. One of these projects is cells. It appears, therefore, that this phe-
concerned with the isolation from plant nomenon, associated with unsaturated fatty
sources of material showing antibiotic acids, is of rather widespread occurrence
properties. This material was first iso- and that it may have extensive significance,
lated from cultures of the unicellular green although there remains much to be worked
alga Chlorella, and was designated by the out regarding the exact nature of the
name chlorellin. The relatively small yields substances and chemical reactions which
of antibiotic material originally obtained are involved in the production of this
from the culture solutions have been antibiotic.
greatly increased by the development of The other research project prompted by
methods which made possible the direct the war has as its aim the development
extraction of the plant cells. By this means of improved range grasses for the West
sufficient material was obtained for pre- by employing newly discovered principles,
liminary examination of the chemical na- For this purpose the attempt has been made
ture of the material showing antibiotic to produce fertile, nonsegregating hybrids
properties. It has been found that these that would be unusually adaptable by em-
properties are due to or are associated with ploying as parents species from radically
the presence of unsaturated fatty acids in unlike environments. The bluegrasses, of
the material extracted from the Chlorella the genus Poa, have met the requirements,
cells. More important is the fact that the because many of the species reproduce
unsaturated fatty acids as first extracted principally by seed developed asexually, so
from the fresh cells show very little or no that most of their offspring are entirely
antibiotic activity. This activity develops maternal in their inheritance. The occa-
on exposure of the mixture of unsaturated sional sexually produced seedling can be a
fatty acids to air and light and involves a hybrid, in turn producing a preponderance
complex oxidation reaction. of offspring just like itself. Thus in a single
Pure, authentic preparations of a num- generation a new, highly constant form is
ber of unsaturated fatty acids have been potentially available.
found to show the same behavior; namely, Hybrids of promise have been obtained,
they exhibit no antibiotic activity until for example, between Big bluegrass from
after they have been exposed to air and the prairies of eastern Washington and a
light. After such treatment their antibiotic hardy race of Kentucky bluegrass from
activity is of about the same magnitude as Swedish Lapland. In this instance the par-
that of preparations obtained from Chlo- ents belong to different taxonomic sections
rella cells. In extension of these findings, of the genus, and were thought to be im-
a number of common food and fodder possible to cross. These hybrids combine
8 65
66
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
the heredities of parents adapted to widely eventually be the function of other agencies
different climatic conditions, and also concerned with grazing and land use. The
represent the combination of a bunch program is also yielding scientific results
grass with a rhizome grass, and of a sum- of importance, as it is complementary to
mer-active, winter-dormant species with a previous studies on the evolution and or-
summer-dormant, winter-active one. From ganization of the higher plants.
such materials it is hoped to discover types
that will be better suited to environments
in which the parents cannot thrive, and
that will produce more feed by a better
utilization of the soil and the growing
season.
The extensive investigations of desert
vegetation which have been carried on for
many years by Dr. Forrest Shreve with
several collaborators have been terminated
with Dr. Shreve's retirement. A con-
siderable part of this work has already
Many of the more promising hybrids been prepared for publication, and it is
and their parents are being tested at the planned to complete this task within the
Institution's two mountain stations as well next year. Owing to difficulties of carrying
as at the gardens of the central laboratory, on field work and the fact that Dr. Chaney
Some are now being delivered to the Soil has been on special appointment in con-
Conservation Service for the more exten- nection with the war, the investigations in
sive final testing of their potentialities. paleobotany have been considerably cur-
The strictly practical aspects of the tailed during the past year. Dr. Erling
grass-breeding program have been in the Dorf has spent a part of the year in a
nature of a demonstration of the applica- study of the occurrence of plant remains
bility of principles recently discovered. The in the sediments of the Paricutin volcano
further production of such hybrids will in Mexico.
BIOCHEMICAL INVESTIGATIONS
H. A. Spoehr, J. H. C. Smith, H. H. Strain, H. W. Milner, and G. J. Hardin
Chlorellin and Similar Antibiotic
Substances
In the report of last year were described
the first attempts to isolate material show-
ing antibiotic activity from cultures of the
green alga Chlorella pyrenoidosa. These
efforts were based upon the fact that the
first indications of antibiotic effects from
this source were obtained from extracts
of the culture solutions. In these first ex-
periments the culture solutions, after being
freed of the algal cells, were extracted
either with organic solvents, or, more prac-
ticably, by means of columnar adsorption
on a special preparation of magnesium
silicate. The material obtained showed
antibacterial properties against both Gram-
positive and Gram-negative organisms; it
was obtained in yields of 0.15 to 0.3 gram
per 15 liters culture solution, and for con-
venience of reference was designated by
the name chlorellin.
For the most part the cultures were
grown in a greenhouse, and the best yields
of chlorellin were obtained during the
summer months, when the plants were ex-
posed to long periods of high light in-
tensity and when the temperature of the
cultures rarely reached 40 ° C. An exten-
sive series of experiments was carried out
with a view to excelling the yields ob-
tained under these conditions. Various
environmental factors were altered, singly
and in groups, including temperature,
length and intensity of illumination by
the use of fluorescent and incandescent
DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY 67
lamps, concentration of carbon dioxide, etc. which had been dried and ground were
The objective of obtaining higher yields exposed to the air for several days, or were
of chlorellin from the culture solutions heated in air to no° C. before extraction,
was never attained; in fact, under many the yield of active material was consider-
conditions the yields were exceedingly ably increased. These observations led to
small, and the conclusion seems war- the experimental demonstration that the
ranted that the highest chlorellin produc- antibiotic substance extracted from dried
tion in the nutrient solution occurs under cells arose from oxidative reactions occur-
conditions of high radiant-energy input, ring in the dried plant material and that
These conditions have previously been this reaction, or series of reactions, was
found to favor the production in Chlorella stimulated by light. In order, therefore, to
cells of the more highly reduced carbon obtain larger yields of the antibiotic ma-
compounds, such as fats and hydrocarbons, terial from the Chlorella cells it was neces-
It was soon realized that the small yields sary to subject the dried cells to a prelimi-
of antibiotic material which are obtainable nary process of fine grinding and exposure
from culture solutions would necessitate to air. The antibiotic material obtained
the use of huge amounts of culture solu- in this manner was in the form of a thick
tions in order to obtain sufficient material yellow or brown oil. When this was sub-
for chemical study, and that if such cul- jected to saponification, an almost colorless
tures were to be grown under artificial crystalline product was obtained, melting
illumination this would entail the expendi- at about 40 ° C. and of slightly higher
ture of a very considerable amount of elec- antibiotic activity than the original oil.
trical energy. The process of extraction of the Chlo-
Because of the small yields of chlorellin rella cells was further simplified by the
obtainable from the cell-free culture solu- adoption of a saponification-extraction pro-
tions and because of the rather cumber- cedure in which the fresh, or dried, cells
some technique involved in handling large are treated directly, at ordinary tempera-
volumes of solutions, efforts were made to tures, with 80 per cent methanol contain-
obtain material showing antibiotic activity ing 2 per cent of potassium hydroxide. In
directly from the Chlorella cells after their this process the cells undergo distintegra-
separation from the culture solutions. On tion, resulting in the thorough extraction
the average, a 15-liter unit of Chlorella of the plant material. The material insolu-
culture produced no grams of fresh cells, ble in the alkaline methanol is separated by
30 grams when dried, in about 30 days; centrifugation; the solution is acidified and
considerably larger yields of cells were ob- thoroughly extracted with petroleum ether,
tained with longer periods of growth of The material soluble in petroleum ether,
the cultures. From the immediate extrac- when freed from this solvent, is a brown,
tion of fresh Chlorella cells no material partly crystalline mass. It shows no anti-
showing antibiotic properties was obtained, biotic activity. When exposed to oxygen
or only exceedingly small amounts. The or air it becomes an almost colorless, crys-
extraction of cells which had been dried talline mass, the reaction being definitely
in vacuo at 60 ° C. yielded a little material accelerated by light. This material now
with antibiotic activity, and cells which shows decided antibiotic activity. The ac-
had been dried in this manner and had tivity is not significantly reduced by heat-
then been finely ground gave higher yields ing in an autoclave to 1200 C, and only
of active material. Moreover, when cells a very small portion thereof is volatile
58 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
with steam. The saponification-extraction the study of the material extracted from
method has greatly increased the amount the cells it has become evident that the
of chlorellin available for experimental antibiotic material is of lipoidal nature; it
purposes. Several hundred grams have is apparently accompanied by a fat-soluble
been prepared by this method, the pro- pigment.
duction being limited chiefly by the amount The material first obtained by means
of Chlorella cells available for extraction, of the saponification-extraction method is
There is little doubt that the antibiotic easily soluble in petroleum ether. After ex-
activity of substances derived from Chlo- posure to oxygen and light it is less soluble
rella cells is the result of an oxidation reac- in this solvent and its solubility in meth-
tion. In the one case this oxidation occurs anol and in water is increased. Partition
in the killed and dried plant material; in between petroleum ether and 80 per cent
the other case it occurs after lipoidal ma- methanol makes possible the extraction of
terial has been removed from the cells and much of the active material in methanol,
has been freed of the solvent used for its but because of complex mutual solubility
extraction. It is impossible to say to what relations, it has not been possible to attain
extent an oxidative reaction of this nature a complete separation of the active ma-
occurs in the living Chlorella cells. The terial from inactive components by this
indications are, however, that there is very means. Nor have other methods been
little antibiotic material in the living or found to attain this goal,
freshly killed cells and also that compara- The material obtained by the saponifica-
tively little of such material accumulates in tion-extraction method is in all probability
the nutrient solution in which the cells a mixture of unsaturated fatty acids. Corn-
are cultured. As a consequence, only rela- bustion analyses substantiate this opinion
tively small amounts of the antibiotic are and also show that exposure to oxygen and
obtainable from the cell-free culture solu- light results in material of higher oxygen
tions by means of the columnar adsorption content than the original extract. For ex-
method. If, however, cultures are killed ample, an original, inactive extract, on
by pasteurization (53-56 ° C. for 4 hours) analysis, showed the following composi-
and are then exposed to light and air, the tion: 77.35 per cent carbon, 11.66 per cent
amount of antibiotic recoverable by adsorp- hydrogen, and 10.99 Per cent oxygen; after
tion is greater than that recoverable from exposure to oxygen and light the analysis
similar pasteurized cultures maintained was as follows: 73.29 per cent carbon,
free of air, that is, in an atmosphere of 10.86 per cent hydrogen, and 15.85 per cent
carbon dioxide. As yet, it has not been oxygen. It should be emphasized that
established with the desired chemical cer- these results represent the analysis of a
tainty that the antibiotic material derived mixture and that probably only a portion
from the culture solutions is identical with thereof has antibiotic activity,
that obtained by extraction of the cells Further indication that we are dealing
and subsequent oxidation. In all proba- with a mixture of fatty acids is obtained
bility we are dealing with mixtures of from the distillation of the material before
very similar compounds, the separation of exposure to air and light. This material
which is difficult, as has been found to is readily distilled at pressures of 5 to 8
be the case with several other antibiotic microns and 65 ° to 220 ° C. Only a very
substances. small fraction fails to distill, and there
From the information gained through is no evidence of decomposition. All dis-
DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY
69
tilled fractions approximate the composi- tralization equivalent of the material ex-
tion of an unsaturated fatty acid on the posed to air and light is 384 and, after
basis of combustion analysis. The material hydrogenation, 394. A positive correlation
which has been exposed to air and light, was found between antibiotic activity and
and which shows antibiotic activity, con- the Kreis rancidity reaction of these prod-
tains a larger proportion of oxygen in the ucts, though it has not yet been established
distilled fractions. The amount of material to what particular compound or group of
which fails to distill is larger, and this compounds this reaction may be due. Nor
also contains a larger proportion of oxygen is it certain that this parallelism will be
than the corresponding residue of the un- maintained in the more highly purified
exposed material. The distillation of the products showing antibiotic activity,
exposed material is accompanied by some In view of the fact that the cumulative
decomposition, and there is indication of evidence regarding the chemical nature of
the formation of easily volatile substances chlorellin showed definitely that unsatu-
through the splitting of larger molecules. rated fatty acids were involved, a number
Additional evidence of the unsaturated of such acids of known constitution were
nature of the material extracted from treated in the same manner as were the
Chlorella cells is gained from its behavior Chlorella extracts and the resulting prod-
on catalytic hydrogenation and from its ucts were tested for antibiotic properties,
iodine number. The product obtained by For this purpose the following unsaturated
saponification-extraction, before it has been fatty acids were examined : linoleic, elaidic,
exposed to air and light, readily under- (3-eleostearic, and (3-licanic acids. None of
goes hydrogenation. Thereby a consider- these showed any antibiotic activity before
able portion of the product is converted exposure to oxygen and light. After they
into stearic acid. The hydrogenated ma- had been exposed to this treatment, in the
terial shows no antibiotic properties; nor solid or oily state, they all gave definite
is any antibiotic substance formed when antibiotic reactions when tested in the
the hydrogenated material is exposed to same manner and in the same concentra-
air and light. The product obtained by tions as used for the chlorellin tests. On
saponification-extraction has an iodine the other hand, stearic acid, a saturated
number of 172. After hydrogenation, only fatty acid, showed no antibiotic activity
an insignificant amount of iodine is ab- either before or after exposure to oxygen
sorbed. The neutralization equivalent of and light. In this connection it is not
the hydrogenated material is 362. without interest that carotene, an unsatu-
By contrast, the material obtained by rated hydrocarbon, also develops antibiotic
saponification-extraction which has subse- activity on exposure to oxygen and light,
quently been exposed to air and light, and although the reaction proceeds more slowly
which has thereby taken on antibiotic prop- than is the case with unsaturated fatty
erties, absorbs about 30 per cent less hydro- acids.
gen. This hydrogenated product contains It is evident, therefore, that various un-
only small amounts of stearic acid and, in saturated fatty acids, which are common
contrast with its parent substance, shows constituents of naturally occurring vege-
little antibiotic activity. The product ex- table fats, behave in a manner very similar
posed to air and light has an iodine num- to that observed in extracts of Chlorella
ber of 107. After hydrogenation it has cells. The results obtained thus far indi-
an iodine number of about 10. The neu- cate that antibiotic material of the nature
70
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
of chlorellin can be produced from a include chlorophyll-bearing as well as pig-
variety of unsaturated compounds and that ment-free tissue. The plants from which
the antibiotic activity is probably not due such preparations have been made were:
to a single oxidation product. It was real- the green leaves of alfalfa, ailanthus, spin-
ized, of course, that the oxidation of un- ach, sunflower, flax, also cabbage, turnips,
saturated fatty acids results in the forma- carrots, the fruit of avocado, and baker's
tion of peroxides, including hydrogen per- yeast.
oxide, and that the latter has bactericidal The antibiotic activity of the various
properties. Preparations of chlorellin and preparations of chlorellin was measured by
fatty acids exposed to oxygen and light the Oxford cup test technique, the organ-
were treated with thiourea or with thio- ism for routine tests being Staphylococcus
urea and potassium iodide in order to aureus (Food and Drug Administration
destroy labile peroxides which might be No. 209). Similar tests using other bacteria
present. By this treatment the antibacterial showed that chlorellin is active against
activities were not reduced significantly, E. coli and several strains of Shigella dy-
a fact which indicates that not much of senteriae. Streptococci were but little af-
the activity can be due to labile peroxides, fected. Dr. Sidney RafTel, who kindly sup-
These investigations were largely based plied us with most of the bacterial strains
upon the observation that cultures of Chlo- used for these assays, is also testing the
rella are autoantibiotic, that is, such cul- activity of chlorellin against various other
tures produce substances that are inhibitory pathogenic bacteria both in vitro and in
to their own development. It was in the vivo, but these investigations are not far
belief that this autoantibiosis may prove enough advanced to warrant report at this
to be heterantagonistic, and because purely time. The use of infected animals in assay-
autotrophic microorganisms had not been ing antibiotics is a specialized and exact-
studied for the production of antibiotics, ing technique demanding talents somewhat
that these investigations were pursued, different from those available in our own
Since the antibiotic properties of the prepa- laboratory; consequently we consider our-
rations obtained from Chlorella appear to selves fortunate in having the advice and
be due to unsaturated fatty acids or at wholehearted cooperation of Dr. Raffel
least to be associated with these com- and Dr. Winsor Cutting on this phase of
pounds, it seemed important to determine the work.
whether similar preparations could be ob- It may prove to be of considerable in-
tained from the lipid extracts of other terest that the antibiotic here described,
plants. Such has, in fact, now been found which was first obtained from cultures of
to be the case. By the use of the same Chlorella pyrenoidosa, and which for con-
methods of extraction as employed with venience was designated as chlorellin, has
Chlorella, extracts showing very similar proved to be very similar to pyocyanase,
properties and having approximately the the first antibiotic, recognized and iso-
same antibiotic activities have been ob- lated over a half-century ago from Pseu-
tained from a variety of plants. The same domonas aeruginosa. Although pyocyanase
phenomenon was observed, namely, that has for some time been the subject of ex-
the first extracts of the plants showed no tensive investigation, its chemical compo-
antibiotic activity, but that this was pro- sition has not been definitely established,
duced on exposure of the extracts to oxy- There are, however, a number of points of
gen and light. The plant tissues examined similarity between chlorellin and pyocyan-
DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY yT
ase which may make a comparative study antibiotics, as to discover means of com-
of the two antibiotics a profitable under- bating bacterial organisms after they have
taking. They are both heat-resistant; their invaded the body. The former would be
solubility in organic solvents is very simi- at least an important part of scientific
lar; in both, unsaturated fatty acids are hygiene.
definitely associated with the antagonistic From this point of view the unsaturated
action toward a variety of microorganisms, fatty acids, which are common constituents
It is conceivable that the tremendously of many plants, are deserving of more care-
complex interrelations involved in micro- ful study. The chemistry of this group of
bial antagonism could in a measure at compounds has been well developed, so
least be clarified on the basis of the chemis- that a vast body of scientific knowledge is
try of the substances responsible for these available. It is possible that the antibac-
antagonistic reactions. Biological antago- terial action of this class of compounds
nism is a natural phenomenon, doubtless may be of a highly specific character, as
occurring throughout the entire biocoenose appears to be the case with chaulmoogric
of which man is a part. The urge on the acid. Although as compared with penicil-
part of man to obtain therapeutic agents lin, for example, the antibiotic activity aris-
capable of suppressing bacterial pathogens ing from the unsaturated fatty acids has
is natural and of the greatest importance, thus far been found to be of relatively low
Yet it is also important to know to what potency, the mixture of fatty acids obtained
extent man is unwittingly protected from from Chlorella cells has not been resolved,
bacterial infection because of antibiotic and only a modest beginning has been
substances which are ingested with his made in the study of individual compo-
food or which the body manufactures or nents. It is possible that the antibiotic
which are the result of old sanitary cus- properties associated with unsaturated fatty
toms. It would seem to be quite as im- acids may make them useful prophylactic
portant to know something about the nat- agents in the form of soaps and cleansing
ural protective agents, that is, man's own agents.
EXPERIMENTAL TAXONOMY
Jens Clausen, David D. Keck, and William M. Hiesey
The range-grass program, initiated in from crossings between remotely related
1943 in cooperation with the Soil Conser- species from contrasting climates,
vation Service of the U. S. Department of Poa, or bluegrass, was chosen because
Agriculture, has advanced to a point where its species are important for forage in al-
its practical and scientific potentialities can most all parts of the world, and because
be evaluated with reasonable clarity. The many of them produce their seed largely
primary objective has been to produce asexually. Only a small percentage of the
through hybridization new grasses of value seed is formed as a result of fertilization,
under conditions of the open range, and so the great bulk of it produces offspring
to explore new approaches to the breeding just like the mother plant. Hybrids be-
of forage grasses. This is being accom- tween such species likewise produce their
plished by obtaining nonsegregating hy- seed largely asexually, and so are non-
brids with increased climatic tolerance segregating and fertile. The small per-
72
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
centage of offspring arising from fertiliza- tained among 38,000 seedlings grown from
tion includes the hybrids, which for this 26 crossings made in 1944. These repre-
reason are rare. This disadvantage is sented 21 strains from 9 species and 3 sec-
counterbalanced by the fact that the hy- tions of Poa. This number of hybrids is
brids do not segregate once they are ob- in addition to the 13 obtained among 4500
tained. The superior hybrids can therefore seedlings from the 1943 crossings. Also,
be selected in the variable first generation, 3 spontaneous intersectional hybrids were
as each individual of this generation is a discovered.
potential starting point for a new, distinct, Most of the hybrids are between species
and practically constant race. belonging to very different sections of the
Poa is also well adapted for large-scale genus. They differ greatly in vigor, some
attempts at combining the genomes of individuals exceeding either parent. The
species fitting very different environments, yield of good seed also varies, but in a sur-
for its forms are found in most of the prising number of cases, as many as 15,000
environmental niches within the temperate to 50,000 seeds per plant were obtained,
and arctic zones. Scientifically, it is at- In the more promising hybrids the per-
tractive for a study on speciation in a centage of good seeds varies between 35
group that is evolutionary so mature that and 90, a range of fertility which is simi-
reproduction is largely asexual, and also lar to that observed in the parental form,
for an exploration of certain important Such wide hybrids could not have yielded
aspects of ecological genetics. so much had their seed been produced by
Of no less importance is the fact that fertilization; therefore, the results strongly
the practical application of scientific prin- indicate that they, like their parents, set
ciples is being tested through this program, most of their seed asexually, and that they
Plant breeding is applied evolution. Fun- will be constant.
damental to the intelligent planning of a It is also now obvious that in these
breeding program is an understanding of crossings between extremely remotely re-
the evolutionary relationships within the lated species, the vigor of the hybrids and
groups to be bred, but these relationships the frequency of their occurrence depend
are largely elucidated through the cross- upon how well the genomes of the parents
ings. The scientific and practical objec- fit together. The most vigorous hybrids
tives are therefore interwoven. jQ not alwavs arise fr0m the most vigorous
Spontaneous crossing has undoubtedly parents. Also, two plants that yield a low
taken place in Poa through the ages, and percentage 0f hybrids in other combina-
some of the artificial hybrids resemble tions may produce a high percentage when
certain of the taxonomically critical species crossed together. The hybrid frequency
in western North America, suggesting that yaries betw£en qq6 and per ^ wkh
the latter may have arisen through hy- c c
•; & ; a mean or 0.46 per cent.
bndization. This does not mean, however,
that the possibilities have been exhausted, Breeding Stock
for spontaneous crossing is limited to such
species and races as happen to grow and The breeding procedure is relatively
flower together, but the breeder can cross simple in a group having the evolution-
races that would never occur together in ary maturity of Poa, in which the entire
the wild. genome, rather than the individual gene,
About 180 hybrid individuals were ob- has become the evolutionary building
DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY
73
block, and the hybrids do not segregate.
It consists in fitting together the available
genomes into successful new combinations
that combine the desirable characteristics
of widely distinct species. For this pur-
pose it is important to have a diversified
stock from which to select the genomes.
About 4500 plants representing 160 new
strains of 23 species of Poa have been
started in the gardens of the Carnegie In-
stitution at Stanford University this year.
Some of these potential breeding stocks
were obtained through our collections in
California; others were received through
the courtesy of the Division of Forage
Crops and Diseases of the Bureau of Plant
Industry, representing strains from widely
different parts of the United States and
of the world; still other seeds, represent-
ing the Rocky Mountain region, were re-
ceived from Dr. B. F. Harrison, of Brig-
ham Young University, Provo, Utah, and
Dr. C. L. Porter, of the University of
Wyoming. The evolutionary relationships
and characteristic reactions of these races
will be studied. Two growing seasons are
required for most of the forms to come to
full maturity.
The species of Poa that offer the great-
est promise for breeding belong to two
contrasting sections of the genus. One
section consists of the bunch-grass Poas of
western North America, including the
members of at least the sections Neva-
denses and Scabrellae of Hitchcock's Man-
ual. Here are found some of the largest
Poas, but they are specialized in their
habitat requirements and are very modi-
fiable, hence are unsuitable for introduc-
tion in a wide range of climates. They
are usually winter-active and summer-
dormant under the climatic conditions at
Stanford.
The members of the other group are
the rhizome-developing species of the Pra-
tenses. They are generally winter-dormant
and summer-active. This section is world-
wide in distribution, with many local
species and at least one that is cosmopoli-
tan, Poa pratensis L., the Kentucky blue-
grass, one of the most tolerant and least
modifiable species known. A form of it
from a subarctic bog at 68° north latitude
has been growing successfully in the heavy
dry soil at Stanford, 300 farther south.
A strain from the Athabasca region of
western Canada grows vigorously at Stan-
ford without irrigation or summer precipi-
tation. The wide range of tolerance and
the slight environmental modifiability of
Poa pratensis and its relatives make them
suitable for agriculture, and it is hoped
that some of this adaptability can be trans-
mitted to their hybrids with the bunch
grasses.
The Poa investigations will be limited
largely to these two sections, whose species
and races offer a striking array of differ-
ences in form and in seasonal periodicity
related to the environment.
Poa Hybrids
The technique employed and the ob-
jectives guiding the crossing experiments
were described in Year Book No. 43 (pp.
73, 75). Mass pollination in cages is used,
and the hybrids are distinguished from
the nonhybrid seedlings of maternal type
in the young seedling stage. The extreme
rarity of the hybrids makes it necessary to
grow large numbers of seedlings, which
are pricked out into flats and spaced ac-
curately to facilitate methodical examina-
tion. The hybrids can be detected in the
8- to 12-leaf stage, when 2 to 3 months
old, and most of the numerous nonhybrid
plants can then be eliminated.
Several crossings were made this year
between species that ordinarily flower at
different seasons. Such was the case in the
crossing of the California bluegrass, Poa
74
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
scabrella (Thurb.) Benth., which flowers
in February and March, and the Canada
bluegrass, Poa compressa L., which is ac-
tivated by day length and flowers at Stan-
ford in June. It was found that scabrella
seedlings will flower about three months
after sowing, and so by regulating the
planting time it was possible to use sca-
brella for crossing with compressa and
other late-flowering species. Likewise, the
earliest strains of pratensis were held dor-
mant in cold storage at the Bellingham,
Washington, station of the Soil Conserva-
tion Service. Plants thus delayed could
then be used for crossing with P. nevaden-
sis Vasey and the latest-flowering strains of
P. ampla Merr. Flowering in ampla is de-
layed when the plants are kept in the
greenhouse, probably because of reduced
light intensity. Such plants were used for
crossing with compressa, which otherwise
blooms later than ampla at Stanford.
Reciprocal crossings were made system-
atically for the first two years. No hybrids,
however, were obtained on pratensis as the
maternal parent, and very few on any
member of the Pratenses. It was at first
thought that this finding might be due to
the dominance of pratensis characters in
juvenile stages, making difficult the dis-
covery of the hybrids among the pratensis
seedlings. Older hybrids, however, are
readily recognized as distinct from praten-
sis, yet none have been discovered among
8000 seedlings raised to maturity from seed
harvested on pratensis after heavy pollina-
tion by ampla and scabrella. Apparently,
then, hybrids occur only on the bunch
grasses when pollinated by pratensis, and
not in the reciprocal combination. This
is possibly another indication of the re-
mote genetic relationship between the two
groups. Because of this finding, and in
order to obtain the greatest yield of hy-
brids, the pollen now is carried only from
the rhizome grass to the bunch grass.
The results of the crossings made in
1943 and 1944 show that in hybridizations
between such remotely related species it
is impossible to predict accurately which
combinations will produce the best hy-
brids. Further exploration of the hybrid
possibilities in the genus has therefore been
necessary. Crossings have now been made
between key climatic races of Poa ampla
Merr., P. scabrella (Thurb.) Benth., P.
nevadensis Vasey, and an alpine race of
P. secunda Presl of the bunch grasses, on
the one hand, and P. pratensis L., P. Kel-
loggii Vasey, P. arida Vasey, and P. com-
pressa L. of the rhizome grasses, on the
other. These are in addition to more
scattered crossings utilizing P. Canbyi
(Scribn.) Piper, P. nervosa (Hook.) Vasey,
P. arachnifera Torr., and P. longifolia
Trin. The 26 combinations attempted this
spring raise the total number of different
crossings to 59. Some 19 different hybrid
combinations have already been obtained,
and the new crossings can be expected to
double this number.
The hybrids already obtained probably
give a fairly reliable picture of the breed-
ing possibilities in these two agronomically
important sections of Poa. The character-
istics of those that are already mature make
it almost certain that desirable and con-
stant new range types can be produced
from such intersectional crosses.
A list of the hybrids growing in 1945,
which are the results of the 1943 and 1944
crossings, is given in the table on page 75.
The percentage of hybrids obtained is indi-
cated for each of the 19 combinations; it is
almost uniformly a low figure.
Most intersectional Fi hybrids of Poa are
so variable that it is difficult to character-
ize any one combination. Three examples
among the more outstanding are discussed
below and include (1) Poa ampla X pra-
tensis, (2) P. ampla X compressa, and (3)
P. scabrella X pratensis.
DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY 75
POA HYBRIDS, I944-I945
No. of Per cent
Crossing hybrids hybrids
Ampla X pratensis, 84 hybrids:
ampla, E. Washington, X pratensis alpigcna, Lapland 7 2.30
ampla, E. Washington, X pratensis, Mather 57 4.95
ampla, E. Washington, X pratensis, Athabasca region 20 0.10
Ampla X arida:
ampla, E. Washington, X arida, Nebraska, and reciprocal 3 0.27
Ampla X compressa:
ampla, E. Washington, X compressa, Asia Minor, and reciprocal 5 0.20
Canbyi X pratensis:
Canbyi, Blue Mts., X pratensis, Athabasca region 1 2.04
Canbyi, Blue Mts., X pratensis, Great Basin race o (2500 seedlings)
Nervosa hybridizations:
nervosa ? X Canbyi (2 crossings) 0 (1255 seedlings)
nervosa $ X scabrella (3 crossings) 0 (1155 seedlings)
Nevadensis X compressa:
nevadensis, E. Oregon, X compressa, Asia Minor 4 1.18
Nevadensis X longifolia:
nevadensis, W. Idaho, X longifolia, Armenia 1 0.21
Scabrella X ampla, possibly 15 hybrids:
scabrella, S. California, X ampla, E. Washington 3? 0.27
scabrella, Cent. California, X ampla, E. Washington 6 + 6? 0.98
Scabrella X pratensis, 65 hybrids:
scabrella, S. California, X pratensis, Athabasca 11 0.35
scabrella, S. California, X pratensis alpigena, Lapland 2 0.23
scabrella, S. California, X pratensis, Mather 19 1.34
scabrella, S. California, X pratensis, Great Basin 8 0.61
scabrella, Cent. California, X pratensis, Athabasca 12 0.17
scabrella, Cent. California, X pratensis, Great Basin 2 0.06
scabrella, Mather, X pratensis alpigena, Lapland 1 0.23
Coastal scabrella X high-altitude secunda, possibly 29 hybrids:
scabrella $, Cent. California, X secunda, Timberline 5? 2.1 1
scabrella, N. California, X secunda, Timberline, and reciprocal 24? 1.57
1. Poa ampla X pratensis. This hybrid cultures grown from seed received from
combines the best of the bunch-grass Poas the Soil Conservation Service.
from the dry Palouse prairie region of The ampla-pratensis hybrids generally
eastern Washington and Oregon with combine the winter activity of ampla with
the outstanding rhizome-producing species the rhizomes, summer leaves, and in-
that usually grows in meadows. These creased rust resistance of pratensis. When
species differ considerably in their time mature, they are different from either
of flowering at Stanford, but cross fairly parent and readily recognized, but like
readily, for 84 Fi individuals have been pratensis they do not flower before the
obtained in 3 combinations. In addition, second year.
3 spontaneous hybrids were found in 3 The only ampla-pratensis combination
76
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
sown in 1944 was a cross between a very that it has two genomes of ampla and one
tall race of ampla from the eastern Wash- of pratensis. This plant, which produced
ington prairie and the alpigena form of some 18,000 good seeds, is 40 per cent
pratensis from a bog 20 north of the Arctic fertile, ranking with some ampla forms
Circle in Swedish Lapland. One would from the wild.
expect these hybrids to be best adapted to Still better ampla-pratensis hybrids are
climates of northern latitudes, like that of anticipated. A cross between two highly
temperate Canada or southern Scandinavia, apomictic strains, one the most vigorous
Sister hybrids are so unlike that they ap- form of ampla from eastern Washington,
pear to belong to distinct species. Each the other a disease-resistant form of praten-
one is potentially the starting point of a sis from a meadow at our Mather station,
new constant and distinct form. Two or has produced 57 hybrids out of approxi-
three of them are of promise, and are doing mately 1200 seedlings. These are more
well even at the relatively southern latitude uniformly vigorous than any of the other
of Stanford. One has inherited the long, hybrids, but they will not flower before
glaucous leaves, winter activity, and very next year.
large inflorescences of ampla, together with 2. Poa ampla X compressa. The Canada
the soft leaf texture, partial summer activ- bluegrass, Poa compressa, is a Eurasian rhi-
ity, short rhizomes, and short culms of zomatous species from drier habitats than
alpigena. It has also inherited some of the pratensis that has been able to establish
rust resistance of the latter. It is only about itself widely. Hybrids between it and
33 per cent fertile, like its ampla parent, yet ampla combine the genomes of two fairly
it was able to produce some 50,000 good drought-resistant species. Five hybrid in-
seeds. dividuals were obtained between the larg-
Another promising ampla-pratensis plant est form of ampla from eastern Washing-
is a spontaneous hybrid of unknown pra- ton and a form of compressa from the
tensis parentage discovered among seed- Mediterranean slopes of Asia Minor at
lings of a desirable race of ampla from 4000 feet altitude. Two of these resemble
Condon, northern Oregon. The seed was compressa, a third is a dwarf, and a fourth
harvested on Condon ampla at the Pull- is sterile. These four have between 50 and
man nursery of the Soil Conservation Serv- 60 chromosomes, and are probably corn-
ice. The lone hybrid stood out distinctly posed of one genome from each parent,
from the ampla plants in the row. Al- The fifth hybrid, however, is an out-
though it is winter-active like ampla, it standing form. It has about 86 chromo-
flowers about three weeks earlier, and then somes, and probably arose from a diploid
remains green longer. It is more florif- ampla ovule with 63 chromosomes and a
erous, and its leaves, although somewhat haploid compressa pollen with approxi-
shorter, are more numerous and darker mately 23 chromosomes. This hybrid is
green. Also, it is more rust-resistant. In winter-active like ampla, and during the
loose soil it develops short rhizomes, but summer it is still green after both parents
it would be classified normally as a bunch have become semidormant. It has inherited
grass, and would pass for an improved the glaucous leaves of ampla, together with
form of ampla. It was more vigorous and the rust resistance and short rhizomes of
taller than its ampla parent and than any compressa. This plant, which is much
pratensis strain grown at Stanford. Its more vigorous than compressa and corn-
chromosome number, in — 92, suggests pares favorably with forms of ampla, may
DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY
77
be of use in extending the summer grazing This relatively ephemeral bunch grass is
season in some dry sectors of the country, resistant to mildew and fairly resistant to
It is as fertile as the best, namely 85 per rust; also, it is very rapid in development,
cent, and has produced about 35,000 good Seedlings will flower in 90 days. In addi-
seeds in one season. tion to these desirable characteristics, it
These five ampla-compressa hybrids, all was realized that scabrella is well adapted
from the same two parents, illustrate the to a southern mild climate and can furnish
variability to be found when species of two a genome to counterbalance those of species
different taxonomic sections are crossed, from northern latitudes or high altitudes.
In many respects, the Fi of these partially A total of 65 scabrella-pratensis hybrids
apomictic species resembles the F2 of sexual were obtained this year in 7 crossings,
species, and it is important to have sufn- using as parents two Coast Range and one
ciently large Fi populations to afford ma- Sierran race of scabrella, paired with races
terial for selection of superior types. of pratensis from Lapland, Canada, the
3. Poa scabrella X pratensis. The paren- Sierra Nevada, and the Great Basin pla-
tal species, California bluegrass, P. sea- teau. The hybrids were recognized by
brella, and Kentucky bluegrass, P. praten- several characters 2 to 3 months after
sis, are complementary in their characters, sowing.
and the hybrid combines the best of the The scabrella-pratensis hybrids have in-
two. Thus, although the scabrella parent herited the summer activity and the long
is a rather weak, unimpressive species, the leaves of pratensis, and, judging from other
hybrid has unexpected vigor and gives hybrids between winter-active and winter-
promise of becoming one of the most sue- dormant species, they may also be expected
cessful combinations. to be winter-active. Such a hybrid might
Poa scabrella is highly specialized to fit become dormant during cold winters or
the climates where it is native. It is largely dry summers, or remain perpetually active
limited to the California Coast Ranges and under favorable conditions, thus provid-
the slopes surrounding the Great Valley ing wide adaptability to different circum-
and those of the Sierra Nevada to mid- stances. This hybrid resembles the sea-
altitudes. All its forms are distinctly brella parent in its quick development, for
winter-active and completely summer-dor- it flowers the first season, only 2 or 3
mant. After May or June there is no sign weeks later than scabrella, whereas praten-
of life until new leaves develop in the cool sis ordinarily does not flower until the
fall even before the first rains come. Forms second year. It is much less rhizomatous
from the outer Coast Range flower in than the ampla-pratensis hybrids, but pro-
February and March. At least three eco- duces more tillers than the scabrella parent,
types are apparent. The one from the Unexpectedly, the most vigorous hybrids
outer Coast Range is the most vigorous occurred in a cross between a scabrella
and the only one of promise for breeding, form from coastal Ventura County, south-
It is the only form that is able to develop ern California, and a very mildew-suscep-
a second crop of leaves after flowering if tible form of pratensis from the desert pla-
the weather stays cool. Under conditions teau near Mono Lake at 6500 feet. The
at Stanford the forms from the Transition latter plant comes from an arid, alkaline
Zone in the Sierra Nevada flower 4 to 6 region with a very severe winter and a
weeks later than those from the outer hot summer, whereas the scabrella parent
Coast Range, yet they go dormant earlier, is from the coastal fog belt with a mild
78
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
winter and summer climate. A hybrid
combining the genomes of such forms
should have a considerable range of toler-
ance for different climates. All 8 of the
hybrids obtained were mildew-resistant.
The fertility was variable, but the best
plant in other characters was 90 per cent
fertile, and its three inflorescences pro-
duced some 3500 good seeds. From pre-
liminary tests, this hybrid appears to be
more productive and fertile than either par-
ent. Its chromosome number is in — 70,
as compared with 84 and 68 in the parents.
Not all hybrids are so promising as those
in the three groups mentioned. Some are
definitely weak, as for example Poa sea-
brella X ampla. This hybrid between mem-
bers of the bunch-grass section unites the
genomes of a species from the southern
coast and one from the dry northern in-
terior. The few hybrids obtained are dis-
tinctly weak, but remain green longer than
scabrella. None have shown a tendency to
flower the first year.
Another weak hybrid is Poa nevaden-
sis X longijolia. The Nevada bluegrass,
which is a close relative of ampla, is from
montane meadows east of the Sierra Ne-
vada and the Cascades. The other parent,
Poa longijolia, is a coarse bunch grass
from the Caucasus region, but it is unre-
lated to the American bunch grasses. The
single hybrid obtained was only a small
rosette of leaves when 8 months old, much
smaller than either parental type of the
same age. Obviously, the genomes of
these two species do not fit together.
These divergent results indicate that a
number of exploratory crossings are neces-
sary to determine which combinations will
produce the most successful hybrids. Then
further crossings can be made for the pur-
pose of combining the proper ecotypes of
these species to fit the desired environ-
mental niches. This type of breeding is
relatively simple as compared with breed-
ing by gene exchange between genomes,
for in the latter case many generations are
required before constancy can be attained
when many exchangeable genes are in-
volved.
Summarizing the results of the cross-
ings, it is demonstrated that intersectional
hybrids between many species of Poa can
be obtained; that the first hybrid genera-
tion is highly variable; and that the com-
binations of some species are generally
vigorous, and those of others are weak.
Furthermore, it is possible to combine
favorable characteristics of the two parents
in many intersectional hybrids, and some
hybrids are as fertile as their parents or
even more so. High fertility in intersec-
tional hybrids in this case should indicate
that the offspring is produced without fer-
tilization and will be constant.
Transplant Experiments
In Year Book No. 43 (p. 77) it was men-
tioned that the Poa hybrids and the paren-
tal strains would be tested at the three
transplant stations in order to determine
their ecological characteristics and their
fitness to different climates. Clones of par-
ent plants and of the first hybrids were
transplanted during 1944 and 1945, and
recent hybrids and their parents will fol-
low as soon as available. Other forms of
critical interest will be transplanted as their
importance becomes apparent. Poa praten-
sis, for example, has now been collected at
from 3000 to 10,000 feet altitude in the
Sierra Nevada, and a closely related form,
P. Kelloggii, has been obtained from
coastal bluffs in Oregon. These, with forms
from the desert ranges, constitute a series
from very different climates worthy of
being tested and classified ecologically at
the transplant stations.
In addition, a nonhybrid series of vari-
able offspring from one individual of the
DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY
79
giant ampla from Albion, Washington, number are accompanied by a change in
was transplanted. These differ in their ecological requirements.
chromosome numbers, belonging to a When the hybrids at hand and those
slightly obscured 7 series, with in — 56, arising from this year's hybridizations have
63, 66, 70, 90-93, 98-100, and 126 chromo- been established at the transplant stations,
somes. There are several plants in each of there will be available for study in three
the 90-93 and 98-100 chromosome groups, climatically very different gardens a unique
These numbers approximate 8-, 9-, 10-, 13-, series of Poa, consisting of many species
14-, and 18-ploid. At Stanford, these plants and ecotypes and some 35 to 40 different
vary considerably in vigor, fertility, and hybrid combinations of these, as well as
susceptibility to disease, but all are char- series of chromosomal aberrants like that
acteristic of ampla and even of the Albion mentioned. Study of this material should
race irrespective of their chromosome produce a new insight into the ecological
number. Poa ampla normally has in = 63 characteristics of the basic forms, and the
chromosomes, 9 sets of 7, which is an un- behavior of their genomes when combined
balanced number. The parent of this series in hybrids or changed by simple addition
has 63 chromosomes, and no strain of or subtraction of sets o£ chromosomes.
ampla from the wild has been discovered
with less. Therefore the plant with 56 Cytology of Range Grasses
chromosomes has lost one set of 7 chromo- u. u . TT , . ,
TT ... ' r . Miss Marguerite Hartung has continued
somes. Under the conditions at Stanford 1111 i_ r
. 11 the study on the chromosome numbers or
this loss appears to have been rather ad- „ . 1 1 1 • 1 1
rr , Poa species and hybrids and on many
vantageous, for that plant is less sus- . , . £ A ,
..° . . r 1 r -1- r species and strains or Agropyron and
ceptible to rust and has a seed fertility or „, A , , , £ , ,
r 1-1 hlymus. A knowledge or the chromo-
7S per cent as contrasted with 40 per cent , r , L . . ,
/J\ 7 r some numbers or the forms is essential to
in the parent. The fact that whole sets or 1 . •.. c , , .
r an understanding or the evolutionary past
chromosomes can be added to or sub- 1 c . r 1
and tuture or such groups.
tracted from ampla without much effect p^ The krge number q£ chromosomes
on the morphology of the plant indicates [n mQ$t spedcg of Pm makes thdr cytQ_
that the same basic sets of chromosomes logkal investigation slow< Triis and the
are duplicated a number of times, and that inherent difficulties in fixation and stain-
the species probably is highly autoploid. ing also make it difficult to determine posi-
The members of this autoploid series of tively whether the chromosomes are pres-
ampla arose spontaneously, and the indi- ent in exact multiples of 7 or whether
cations are that such variations may arise slight deviations exist. Some of the re-
also in the natural populations. Since 63 suits were reported in Year Book No. 43
chromosomes are uniformly found in (pp. 74-75). The chromosome numbers
ampla from the Palouse prairie, there is a of more than 115 races from 22 species of
possibility that a change in the chromo- Poa are now determined. This has filled
some number may be accompanied by a out gaps in our information, but has not
change in the fitness to the environment, essentially changed the picture presented
which places the chromosomal aberrant at in last year's report.
a disadvantage at its point of origin. It is evident that in the Pacific states
The present transplant tests will indicate each species of the bunch-grass section is
whether the differences in chromosome chromosomally relatively uniform, and all
8o
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
are characterized by high numbers in mul-
tiples of 7. For example, Poa scabrella is
usually duodecaploid, with in — 82-86
chromosomes; that is, its forms have ap-
proximately 12 sets of 7 chromosomes each.
Occasional weaker individuals deviate,
with in — 63 chromosomes, but they ap-
pear to be unimportant in wild popula-
tions. However, one vigorous population
from near Clear Lake, northern Cali-
fornia, has uniformly in — 63. Its tech-
nical characters are those of scabrella, but
it has coarser stems, more congested in-
florescences, and a flowering period 2
months later than the other Coast Range
strains. Therefore, its origin is probably
different from that of the others. Like-
wise, a 70-chromosome race has been
found in Poa ampla and in P. nevadensis,
which normally have in — 63 chromo-
somes. Aberrations like these are to be
expected in partially apomictic groups
where vigorous deviators and new hybrids
can immediately establish themselves as
constant populations.
The western American bunch-grass Poas
with high chromosome numbers must have
had a long evolutionary history, but very
few facts that can be expected to lead to
an understanding of it have so far been
found. The discovery of related primitive
forms with low chromosome numbers
would furnish keys to the solution of this
problem. But if such forms still exist, they
must be very rare. The only indication
in this direction is the discovery of a
hexaploid form of scabrella with about
42 chromosomes from the western edge of
the Mohave Desert. This single plant is
indistinguishable from the normal 84-
chromosome form. Its existence merely
tends to strengthen the impression that
our present-day forms of these grasses have
arisen from the earlier by a multiplication
of their chromosomes, that is, through
autoploidy.
Poa pratensis ranks as the chromoso-
mally most variable species of the genus,
and as one of the plants most tolerant to
variation in chromosome number. Forms
with in = 49, 50, 56, 57, 67, 68, 70, 73, 74,
76, and 80 chromosomes have been found
among races from the Pacific states, and
in = 81 has been found in two races of
the very closely related P. Kelloggii from
coastal bluffs of Oregon. A fairly healthy
form with in = 36, half the normal num-
ber, was discovered among the aberrants
of the alpigena form from Lapland. Some
local populations of pratensis consist of
several forms that differ in chromosome
number. Asexual propagation makes it
possible for such forms to be perpetuated
once they arise. It appears that in the
higher brackets of the series, the forms
that deviate from the multiples of 7 are
just as vigorous as those having chromo-
some numbers in multiples.
In spite of this extreme variation in
chromosome number, Poa pratensis is not
a critical species taxonomically, for its
forms are easily recognizable and very
different from all other Poas. There are
no clues as to the origin of this remarkable
species, from which chromosomes may be
added or subtracted within the range of
about in — 18 to 120 without its losing its
identity. Its occurrence at very high alti-
tudes in the mountains of western North
America makes it certain that it is indig-
enous here, although some forms in agri-
cultural areas have been introduced.
Many forms of Poa of hybrid origin are
no doubt present in the vegetation of
western North America. Some of these
intermediate forms have been named as
species; others have not yet been noticed.
The crossing experiments have shown that
morphologically very distinct forms with
different chromosome numbers may arise
within one cross. Species of parallel hy-
brid origin can therefore exist under differ-
DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY
8l
ent names in distinct sections of the coun-
try. For example, the characters of Poa
fibrata Swallen, in — 64, in California, and
P. glauci folia Scribn. & Williams, in — 50,
in the intermountain states, are such that
both could have arisen independently from
spontaneous crossings between Poa ampla
and P. pratensis. Likewise, two native
strains from Washington are in culture
which are very different from each other,
but both of which appear to combine char-
acters of Poa ampla and P. Canbyi. They
have not received formal names, and al-
though one has in — 63 and the other
approximately in — 88 chromosomes, both
could well be descendants from independ-
ent spontaneous crossings between these
two species.
The synthesized Poa hybrids therefore
will probably furnish some clues to the
understanding of the intermediate forms
that obscure the distinctions between the
taxonomic sections. They point to the
species of the future, whose forerunners
already are elements of the vegetation, but
they will not contribute much to the
understanding of the makeup of the basic
species from which they sprang.
Agropyron and Elymus. Another im-
portant group of forage grasses in western
North America are the wheat grasses
{Agropyron) and the wild rye (Elymus).
Thirty individuals each of some 115 races
of 19 species of these genera have been
grown in the garden for two years in order
to study and compare them and to deter-
mine their chromosome numbers.
These genera present a very different
picture from Poa, for most of their species
have relatively low chromosome numbers
in strict multiples of 7, and they repro-
duce sexually. A few species are diploid,
with 7 pairs of chromosomes, but most are
tetraploid, with 14 pairs. Higher poly-
ploids are uncommon; in our assemblage
9
only one species each has 21, 28, and 35
pairs of chromosomes.
More than one chromosome number has
been found in some species of Agropyron.
This situation usually indicates that such
a species is heterogeneous, and that addi-
tional methodical investigation is required
to clarify its composition and the origin
of its forms. Agropyron spicatum (Pursh)
Scribn. & Smith has 7 pairs of chromo-
somes over most of its territory, but there
is a pocket of large tetraploids with 14 pairs
in eastern Washington and western Idaho.
The extremely variable Agropyron Smithii
Rydb. is predominantly octoploid, with 28
pairs of chromosomes, as noted in races
from Washington, Idaho, South Dakota,
Kansas, and Texas, but a form from
southeastern Oregon, near the periphery of
the range of the species, has only 14 pairs.
Within a natural population the species
of Poa are relatively uniform, but Agro-
pyron and Elymus are highly variable, al-
though some species vary more than others.
In extreme cases individual differences
within one population will involve even
the technical characters that are used to
separate Agropyron and Elymus, which
probably are very artificial genera. Great
morphological variation, and poorly de-
fined species, are characteristic of genera
having closely related species which will
cross rather readily, and whose chromo-
somes are still largely homologous and able
to pair in the hybrids. Amphiploids aris-
ing from hybrids between such species
would be unstable and very difficult to
breed to constancy.
In view of the complexity of the Agro-
pyron-Elymus group, it has been decided
to limit the grass studies to the two sec-
tions of Poa, particularly since progress in
hybridizing members of this genus has
been greater than anticipated.
82
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
Achillea Studies
The study of the transplant reactions of
local populations of Achillea is now ap-
proaching its conclusion. The materials
came from frequent intervals across central
California in a line with the transplant
stations from the coast to the Great Basin
plateau east of the Sierra Nevada. They
were discussed in Year Book No. 41 (pp.
127-132), and planted at the three stations
in 1942. The unique range of climates
covered by this transect and occupied by
Achillea, the strategic sampling, and the
reactional patterns as recorded from the
three stations lead to an understanding of
the basic characteristics of climatic races,
or ecotypes. The analysis of the data and
the preparation of illustrations for publi-
cation are well under way.
Future Investigations
The war temporarily interrupted a series
of studies dealing with the laws that de-
termine the hereditary and environmental
relations of plants. These laws are basic
to an understanding of organic evolution.
Fortunately, the garden experiments have
been completed. The very complete records
preserved in the form of notes and plant
materials can now be prepared for publi-
cation without the necessity of making new
field collections. The Poa investigations
have been conducted in such a way that
they represent a further extension of this
program.
These investigations on the organization
of plant life, as viewed from coordinated
cytogenetic, morphologic, geographic, and
ecologic approaches, have extensively uti-
lized the Madiinae, the climatic races of
Achillea, and the selection experiment on
Potentilla glandulosa. Each of these three
groups of plants has been eminently suited
to the purpose for which it was used. The
usefulness of these materials for discovering
basic laws governing relationship and dis-
tribution of organisms in a region of cli-
matic and topographic diversity, and the
broad scope of the coordinated investiga-
tions, are unique features of this program.
It is an obligation to bring this material
to prompt publication. The two parts of
"Experimental studies on the nature of
species" published by the Carnegie Insti-
tution, one as publication 520, on environ-
mental influence, and the other as publica-
tion 564, on amphiploidy and autoploidy,
deal with two phases of our program. The
intervening field is to be treated in publi-
cations on the evolutionary dynamics of
the Madiinae, on the climatic races of
Achillea, and on the genetics of ecotypes.
The grass program, which extends the
field to speciation in a group of asexu-
ally reproducing (apomictic) plants, was
largely built on the principles learned in
these still unpublished investigations. It
has had three interlocking objectives. One
is the development of improved range and
forage grasses. At best, the necessarily
limited output of such materials can be
expected to contribute only a small part
to the solution of the very complex prob-
lem of improving the range lands. Once
the utility of these methods of producing
superior grasses is demonstrated, this phase
of the program obviously belongs to agen-
cies other than those devoted to basic
research.
The second and more important objec-
tive is the development of new principles
in the practical breeding of range and
forage grasses, in this case combining
species fitted to very contrasting environ-
ments to obtain hybrids with greater toler-
ance, and speeding the production of new
forms by utilizing nonsegregating hybrids.
The third objective is to arrive at an
understanding of the laws that govern the
evolution of forms in a group of apomictic
DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY
83
organisms. The other two objectives de-
pend on this one, the attainment of which
is clearly within the domain of basic
research.
Our plan is to proceed with the prepara-
tion for publication of the Madiinae inves-
tigations, the selection experiment, and the
studies on climatic races, while continuing
the experimental work on Poa. Under
this arrangement, facilities at the stations
now partially vacated by the other pro-
grams become available for Poa, the data
on which can be assembled while the
other records are being analyzed.
Guest Investigations
Dr. Th. Dobzhansky, Research Asso-
ciate of the Carnegie Institution from Co-
lumbia University, utilized facilities at the
Mather transplant station during the sum-
mer of 1945 for experiments related to the
genetics of native populations of Drosoph-
ila pseudoobscura. Dr. G. L. Stebbins,
Jr., of the University of California, also
spent some time there during the sum-
mer, analyzing wild populations contain-
ing intergeneric and interspecific hybrids
of Agropyron, Elymus, and Sitanion.
Mather is strategically located for studies
on the distribution of plants, for forms
common to higher and lower elevations,
and of northern and southern distribution,
frequently grow together here and a num-
ber will hybridize.
Professor W. E. Lawrence, of Oregon
State College, spent two summer months
during 1945 at the laboratory at Stanford
studying the geographic distribution of
Achillea throughout the Pacific coast states.
As no thoroughly dependable morpho-
logical characters have been found to dis-
tinguish all forms of Achillea borealis
Bong., which is hexaploid, from A. lanu-
losa Nutt., which is tetraploid, the only
safe way of determining their distribution
is to count the chromosomes. In Cali-
fornia, the hexaploids extend from the
coast to the foothills of the Sierra Nevada
and have developed three or four major
ecotypes over this area. Higher in the
Sierra and eastward they are replaced by
the tetraploids. Lawrence finds that in
Oregon the tetraploid presses to within a
very short distance of the coast, replacing
all hexaploids inland, but leaving room for
the maritime ecotype of the hexaploid
species, which extends north to the coast
of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands.
DESERT INVESTIGATIONS
Forrest Shreve
Shortly after the establishment of the
Division of Plant Biology a program was
formed for a regional investigation of the
desert areas lying in Arizona, southeastern
California, and the Mexican states of Baja
California and Sonora. This is a sharply
marked area with essential unity in its
climatic and biological conditions. In geo-
graphical and botanical literature it has
long been designated as the Sonoran
Desert. The Desert Laboratory of the In-
stitution was located on the inner edge
of this area and about midway between
its northern and southern limits. The
Sonoran Desert program provided for a
complete enumeration of the higher plants,
more exact determination of their areas
of distribution, and fuller knowledge of
their habitat requirements and ecological
behavior, as well as for a study of the types
of vegetation found in the area, their dis-
tribution and relationship, and their rela-
tion to the differences of climate and soil
that were known to exist in the more
widely separated parts of the area of
126,000 square miles.
84
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
Field work was begun in 1932 and type very distinct from that found inland,
carried on actively for five years, being but it enjoys extremely little amelioration
supplemented later by several visits to of the arid conditions through its proximity
areas of importance which had not pre- to the sea. The almost constant strong
viously been readily accessible. Work on ocean winds join with the aridity in caus-
the vegetation was carried out by Dr. ing a very low and open plant covering.
Shreve and Dr. T. D. Mallery, and the The region of biseasonal rainfall is one
study of the flora was in the hands of Dr. in which the control of soil moisture by
I. L. Wiggins, of Stanford University, topographic conditions is marked. The
Large plant collections were made by Dr. broad plains support a very uniform
Wiggins and he has devoted much time shrubby vegetation which is low in stature
to the study of material collected in the and made up of a small number of species,
area by early workers. Because of the fact The coarser soil of bajadas, pediments, and
that there has been no previous compila- the slopes of hills and mountains supports
tion of the flora of the Sonoran Desert or vegetation which is taller, more dense, and
the Mexican parts of the area, it has been made up of a much larger number of
necessary for Dr. Wiggins to make a criti- species. The southern part of this desert
cal study of almost every group of plants area, lying in the state of Sonora, and the
found there. The adoption of a natural inner edge of the area, lying near the foot-
rather than a political area has also made it hills of the Sierra Madre, support a heavier
necessary to determine the precise locality vegetation than is found in the north,
in which each of the older collections was The flora of the southeastern part of the
made. Sonoran Desert is greatly enriched by the
The principal differences of vegetation occurrence of many trees and shrubs which
in the several parts of the Sonoran Desert here reach their northern limits. A few of
are chiefly attributable to restriction of these are characteristic plants of the thorn
rainy periods in Baja California to the forest which extends south from the south-
winter and early spring months, the occur- ern edge of the desert. In this region the
rence of biseasonal rains in the northern rainfall is greater than it is in the Colo-
parts, and the increasing prevalence of sum- rado and Gila valleys, and its increase with
mer rains toward the south. The vegeta- increasing altitude is greater,
tion of Baja California is marked by the The Sonoran Desert program has, in
occurrence of several common large plants effect, been an extension of the earlier
which are either confined to that penin- work of the Desert Laboratory, carrying
sula or found only very locally on the the investigation of the Tucson region to
mainland. The size and unique character the distributional limits of the plants which
of some of these plants, as Idria, Pachy- had been studied there, and using the
cormus, Yucca valida, and Pachycereus knowledge of the plants and conditions of
Pringlei, have given Baja California a the Tucson area as aids in interpreting
reputation for unique vegetation which is the ecological features of the more remote
scarcely borne out when consideration is parts of the desert area,
given to the less favorable habitats and to In 1937 the program of desert work was
the very large number of characteristic extended to include the more elevated
plants which are common to this and other areas lying east of the continental divide in
parts of the Sonoran Desert. Where the western Texas and the Mexican states of
desert borders the Pacific coast it is of a Chihuahua, Coahuila, Durango, Zacatecas,
DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY
85
and San Luis Potosi. This area has been
designated the Chihuahuan Desert, al-
though field work has revealed that the
most characteristic part of the area, and
the one in which the agencies of aridity
have apparently been longest at work, lies
in the state of Coahuila.
The Chihuahuan Desert lies mainly
above 3500 feet in elevation and includes
some very arid areas together with others
in which there is summer precipitation
approaching that of the central part of the
Sonoran Desert. The winter temperatures
are much lower than those in the coldest
parts of the Sonoran Desert. The Chihua-
huan Desert is distinguished by the oc-
currence of numerous large and small un-
drained basins which have either a central
saline playa or a deep soil with a heavy
stand of coarse grass, and by the preva-
lence of limestone outcrops and hills of a
type which erodes very slowly under arid
conditions.
The study of the flora of the Chihua-
huan Desert has been carried on through
the cooperation of Dr. I. M. Johnston, of
Harvard University, who had already done
considerable work in the deserts of Chile
and Argentina. Dr. Johnston made large
collections between 1938 and 1941, and has
been favorably situated at the Gray Her-
barium for study of the older collections
from northern Mexico. He has detected
a relatively large number of new species in
the area, has thrown new light on the
floristic affinities of the flora of the basins
and mountains of northern Coahuila, and
has found critical study and revision nec-
essary in several groups of plants. Dr.
Johnston has published papers embodying
descriptions of new species, and in 1943
and 1944 published five installments of an
annotated list of the plants of Coahuila and
adjacent states, covering the families from
the Polypodiaceae to the Nyctaginaceae.
The distribution of vegetation in the
Chihuahuan Desert is mainly controlled
by the character of underlying rock and
soil and by the major topographic fea-
tures. Only at elevations of 1000 to 2000
feet above the surrounding plains does the
influence of climatic conditions become
important in differentiating the vegetation.
In spite of floristic differences, there is a
strong similarity between comparable situ-
ations in the northern and southern parts
of the desert. Trees are far less frequent
than in the Sonoran Desert, and shrubs
and such semishrubs as Atriplex are char-
acteristic. Large cacti are relatively un-
common, but small ones are extremely
abundant. Extensive areas have open or
heavy stands of Yucca or Dasylirion. Also
the smaller semisucculents Agave and
Hechtia are found in extensive stands, par-
ticularly on limestone. In all parts of the
Chihuahuan Desert above 5000 feet there
are many areas with an open sod of per-
ennial grasses.
There are no parts of the Chihuahuan
Desert in which the ground is as thickly
covered with diversified groups of striking
plants as in many localities in Sonora and
Baja California. Only in Zacatecas and
San Luis Potosi does the occurrence of
tall yuccas, Acacia Farnesiana, and large
platyopuntias and agaves give striking evi-
dence of the somewhat ameliorated condi-
tions which exist along the southern edge
of the Chihuahuan Desert.
The preparation of material for com-
panion publications on the flora and vege-
tation of the Sonoran and Chihuahuan
deserts has made progress during the past
three years, in spite of other urgent de-
mands on the time of the participants, and
the ultimate completion of the results of
the projects should be possible within the
next two years.
86 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
PALEOBOTANY
Ralph W. Chaney
Completion of the study of an Eocene the more specialized dictyostele in modern
cactus by Dr. Chaney is the only concrete Opuntieae. These earliest members of the
yield of the period during which he has cactus family, though having the flattened,
been engaged upon an emergency war as- fleshy stems of living prickly pears, were
signment. Modern members of the Cac- at an unspecialized level of vascular devel-
taceae are highly specialized; in the case opment consistent with their great an-
of the tribe Opantieae, which the fossils tiquity. In several features of their fruits,
closely resemble, this specialization of vege- the ancient cacti of Utah also show more
tative structures makes possible their ex- generalized structures than their modern
istence in arid or exposed environments, descendants. The bases of the fruits are
Discovery of similar plants in rocks as- narrowed and stemlike, vascular tissues are
signed to the Eocene epoch, when mod- well developed, and areoles are numerous
ern flowering plants were first becoming on their distal ends. These characters of
dominant and widespread, is therefore of the fruits, like the stelar structure of the
interest as indicating an early development stem joints, suggest an ancestral relation-
of this structural adjustment to desert con- ship with modern Opuntieae, and an in-
ditions. This record of a prickly-pear termediate position between Opuntieae and
type of cactus, to which the generic name the more primitive tribes Peres\ieae and
Eopuntia has been assigned, extends the Cereeae.
known age of the Cactaceae back some The Green River flora as a whole con-
fifty million years to the early part of the tains many genera which now live in
Tertiary period, the period preceding that regions characterized by warm-temperate
in which we live. climate, with well defined dry seasons.
The Green River formation of Utah and Such an environment appears to have been
adjacent states contains an abundance of present in eastern Utah during the Eocene
plant remains. Most of the conifers and epoch, and to have provided living condi-
angiosperms are preserved as impressions, tions suited to this oldest known cactus,
which show the surface characters of The current eruption of Paricutin is pro-
leaves, stems, and fruits in great detail viding an opportunity to continue the
but supply little information regarding study of conditions under which many
their internal structure. Our specimens of fossil plants have been preserved in the
Eopuntia, representing stem joints and at- western United States. Widespread vulcan-
tached fruits, show on their surfaces linear ism during the Tertiary period provided
markings which are not characteristic of the topographic setting and the sediments
similar living cacti. It is therefore particu- which facilitated the burial of stems, seeds,
larly fortunate that one of the stem joints and leaves of ancient trees and shrubs,
has been so preserved that not only the and their subsequent transformation into
external but the internal characters may fossils. A clearer picture of the past can be
be observed. When studied from within, drawn if we have an understanding of
these linear markings are seen to represent factors concerned in the burial and preser-
vascular strands of a siphonostele, a type vation of plant remains in contemporary
of stem still occurring in certain primitive deposits. Under the combined auspices of
genera of the Cactaceae, but superseded by Princeton University and the Carnegie In-
DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY
87
stitution of Washington, Dr. Erling Dorf
has spent a month at Paricutin volcano, in
a study of the occurrence of plant remains
in volcanic sediments. His preliminary re-
port indicates that (1) leaves, stems, and
fruits of plants buried during the eruption
have been little if any altered as yet; (2)
there is abundance of remains of pine and
oak, but other trees such as alder, linden,
and cherry are poorly represented although
they are numerous in the region; (3) plant
remains have been well preserved only
where buried close to their parent trees or
shrubs; (4) subaerial ash deposits contain
more abundant and better-preserved ma-
terial than stream and lake deposits; (5)
these deposits are already being destroyed
by erosion; (6) the best situation for the
ultimate preservation of the record of this
Mexican forest will be in valley ash de-
posits buried by lava to protect them from
erosion.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Chaney, Ralph W. A fossil cactus from the
Eocene of Utah. Amer. Jour. Bot., vol. 31,
pp. 507-528 (1944).
Clausen, Jens, David D. Keck, and William M.
Hiesey. Experimental studies on the nature
of species. II. Plant evolution through
amphiploidy and autoploidy, with examples
from the Madiinae. Carnegie Inst. Wash.
Pub. 564. vii+i74pp. (1945).
Hardin, Garrett. A more meaningful form of
the "logistic" equation. Amer. Naturalist,
vol. 79, pp. 279-281 (1945).
Hiesey, William M. See Clausen, Jens.
Keck, David D. Studies in Penstemon. VIII. A
cyto-taxonomic account of the section Sper-
munculus. Amer. Midland Naturalist, vol.
33, pp. 128-206 (1945).
See Clausen, Jens.
La Motte, Robert Smith. Supplement to cata-
logue of Mesozoic and Cenozoic plants of
North America, 1919-37. U. S. Geol. Surv.
Bull. 924, pp. 1-330 (1944).
Lawrence, William E. Some ecotypic relations
of Deschampsia caespitosa. Amer. Jour. Bot.,
vol. 32, pp. 298-314 (1945).
Smith, James H. C. Concurrency of carbohydrate
formation and carbon dioxide absorption
during photosynthesis in sunflower leaves.
Plant Physiol., vol. 19, pp. 394-403 (1944).
Spoehr, H. A. Some responsibilities of science.
Amer. Scientist, vol. 33, pp. 49-54 (1945).
Wiggins, Ira L. Collecting ferns in northwest-
ern Mexico. Amer. Fern Jour., vol. 34, pp.
37-49 (1944).
Notes on the plants of northern Baja
California. Contr. Dudley Herbarium, vol.
3, pp. 289-312 (1944).
DEPARTMENT OF EMBRYOLOGY
Baltimore, Maryland
GEORGE W. CORNER, Director
This annual report, the fourth to be sub- reduce the distortion of tissues caused by
mitted since the entry of our nation into the pressure of the microtome knife. His
the war, is accompanied by the smallest new knife, circular in form, is made to
review of published work since the De- rotate as it passes through the tissues and
partment of Embryology first got well thus produces a slicing cut. Considerable
under way. Two members of the regular mechanical effort is necessary to produce a
staff of investigators have been away on truly circular knife and to keep its edge in
war duty. A group of workers normally good condition. In the course of this work
active in peace times, consisting of visit- Mr. Heard has acquired a great deal of
ing investigators, temporary members in information, both practical and theoretical,
the status of fellows, and local scientific about the nature of a useful knife-edge
workers making use of the laboratory's for microtomy. This will doubtless be pub-
facilities, has been almost completely scat- lished in due time and is now being put to
tered by the war. The Director and other use. Other members of the staff have been
members of the staff have been distracted able to maintain their research programs
by emergency duties and by the general along the lines mentioned in previous
disturbance of the times. Year Books, with results that will be pub-
The small output of the year, in pub- lishable in due course. We have continued
lished research, does not however repre- to put about half the facilities of the mon-
sent all the activities of the Department, key colony at the disposal of a research
The accumulation and preparation of group from the Johns Hopkins University
human embryos has continued, and in fact School of Hygiene, in the conduct of a
the year has seen a notable growth in the study in tropical medicine requiring the
number of well preserved embryos cut into use of monkeys under the skilled care
perfect serial sections by Dr. C. H. Heuser, which our animal-house staff is qualified
Curator of the Embryological Collection, to give.
and his technical assistants. In an effort to Dr. Louis B. Flexner, who has been
provide Dr. G. L. Streeter with ample Technical Aide to the Committee on Avia-
material for his special project described tion Medicine of the National Research
below, a score or more of embryos of the Council, has been released from most of
fourth and fifth weeks were prepared for the demands upon his time made by that
study. The specimens thus newly made work, and will resume on a larger scale
available for morphological research, repre- than before his studies on the physiology
senting the period when many of the im- of developing tissues. Dr. S. R. M. Reyn-
portant organs begin to take form, make a olds, major in the Army Air Forces, has
permanent addition to our resources. been released from the army. There are
Mr. O. O. Heard, the senior modeler, hopeful signs that the group of investi-
working in collaboration with Dr. Heuser, gators outside the formal membership of
devoted much time to the perfection of the staff will soon be reconstituted. Post-
a new technique of microtomy intended to war plans of the Department involve no
89
9o
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
large deviation from the program which The war has delayed the work but has
was set forth by the Director in the annual not altered the fundamental problems of
report for 1940-1941 (Year Book No. 40). human development.
EMBRYOLOGY AS A COOPERATIVE SCIENCE
During the period, now ending, of na-
tional concentration for war, scientists
have found themselves called upon as
never before for cooperative action. A
trend, created by the needs of modern
science and already noticeable in recent
years, toward group research by associates
trained in different branches has been
greatly accelerated by the war. The public
is now learning through the newspapers
and magazines of the group projects that
sprang into existence under such organi-
zations as the Office of Scientific Research
and Development and the National Re-
search Council. Some of the practical
achievements of group research are already
apparent. Among the gains brought about
by this war, in partial compensation for
its destruction and misery, surely not the
least is this cross-fertilization of the various
sciences, which results not only in imme-
diate practical advantages, but also in new
thinking about fundamentals. The syn-
thesis of ideas thus achieved is not lost
even if in times of peace the pendulum
swings again necessarily toward individu-
alistic research.
Professional scientists are therefore in a
mood, at present, to take stock of the serv-
ices their respective branches may render
to others. A few reflections on this ques-
tion, as concerns a laboratory of mam-
malian embryology, may be useful in fore-
casting our own work in the future.
The science of the development of the
higher animals, and especially of man, has
necessarily been largely descriptive and has
mostly dealt with events so intricate, so
much unlike the things man can do with
his hands and mechanical tools, as to ban-
ish any thought of controlling them. The
embryologist could only observe, depict,
and describe, although the phenomena
thus revealed have been of such profound
significance as to claim the attention of
able minds to embryology as a pure science.
Embryology could not give immediate
birth to applied science as physics gave
birth to locomotives, flight, and electronic
devices. Its chief practical service, rendered
to the art of the physician, has been to
provide a background of explanation and
understanding for many otherwise puz-
zling facts of normal anatomy as well as
of structural anomalies and defects. This
service is often so subtle that it is not ap-
preciated by ultra-practical minds. Pre-
sumably an operation, for example for con-
genital hernia or cleft palate, could be done
successfully without knowledge of the em-
bryology of the region; but the surgeon
who has the responsibility of repairing
such lapses of development, if he under-
stands how they came about, operates with
added assurance and comfort of mind.
This is well understood by the wisest sur-
geons, as is evidenced by the time many of
them have spent on embryological studies.
To cite a case close at hand, we are pre-
paring to publish in an early volume of
the Carnegie Contributions to Embryology
a painstaking investigation of the develop-
ment of the arteries of the brain, made by
Dorcas H. Padget, of the staff of the
distinguished neurological surgeon Walter
E. Dandy. Dr. Dandy's interest in this
subject was aroused because he observed
anomalies of the cerebral arteries at the
operating table and he thought it worth
while to subsidize a study of their origin.
DEPARTMENT OF EMBRYOLOGY qT
The staff members of the Department of Some of these discoveries have gone so far
Embryology, like embryologists in other as to localize the enzymes under the micro-
cities, are not infrequently called to the scope, as for example the new tech-
hospital clinics to take part in the scien- niques of Gomori for visualizing the phos-
tiflc analysis of cases involving embryonic phatases. The chemical processes of cell
defects. Whether or not the embryologist life are being worked out. The develop-
contributes to a cure, the patients are ing embryo offers an especially favorable
fortunate to be in the hands of physicians opportunity for studying the chemical
who want to understand their problems functions of specific tissues, for as the em-
from the most fundamental aspect. bryo grows, new organs and tissues make
At any moment, of course, the facts of their appearance. Applying the new tech-
a so-called "pure" science may suddenly niques to the embryo, it will be possible
be found to have practical importance, in many cases to associate the appearance,
This has been strikingly true of one divi- the peak activity, and the disappearance
sion of mammalian embryology: the in- of an enzyme or other metabolic chemical
vestigation of the reproductive cycle, i.e., compound with the unfolding organic
the integration of function of ovaries, structure. In the long run we shall thus
uterus, and other parts of the female repro- approach a full understanding of the
ductive tract, by which the maturation of physicochemical means by which the or-
the ovum, its discharge from the ovary, its gans and tissues of the body are developed
fertilization, transportation to the uterus, and differentiated from the simpler con-
and implantation are timed and coordi- stituents of the fertilized egg. As this
nated. About the beginning of the present kind of investigation develops, the chem-
century the newly developing study of ical embryologist will find himself in co-
endocrinology and that of the reproductive operative relation with other students of
cycle were brought together, with the re- growth, and especially with investigators
suit that the half-century has seen an of abnormal growth, i.e. cancer and other
enormous increase of knowledge of the tumors. No line can be drawn, in fact,
hormonal control of reproduction, with between normal growth as in the embryo
practical results that are already impressive, and infant on the one hand, and abnormal
if measured by the number of pages in the growth on the other. Whatever is learned
medical journals on this subject and the from one will help in understanding the
investment of the pharmaceutical firms other. We have long since had an example
in the manufacture of steroid hormones, of this fact in the work on cell growth in
The staff of our laboratory has already tissue cultures, carried on in our labora-
taken a part in this advance and we shall tory by Dr. W. H. Lewis and Dr. M. R.
continue to work in the same field. Lewis. Begun as a way of analyzing nor-
There are several aspects of embryology mal cell growth and development, their
in which a similar cooperative attack is program became closely associated with
under way or impending. In recent years cancer research.
there has been a great advance in knowl- Another phase of mammalian embry-
edge of the enzymes in animal tissues, ology in which, one may venture to pre-
and of other chemical and physical sys- diet, there will soon be notable progress
terns controlling such essential functions through cooperation between the sciences
as tissue respiration and the intracellular is that of teratology, the lore of embryonic
metabolism of various organic substances, abnormalities. It has been part of our
92
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
departmental routine to preserve and study
anomalous and defective embryos and to
render diagnostic service to physicians as
far as current knowledge goes. Better
knowledge, based on experiments, has had
to wait for the results of work on lower
animals. Experiments on accessible em-
bryos like those of fish, amphibians, and
birds, intended to produce defects and
anomalies, are a century old and have
taught us much about the susceptibility of
early embryonic tissues to harmful en-
vironmental conditions, e.g. excessive cold,
heat, defective oxygenation, deleterious
chemicals, etc. The advent of genetic anal-
ysis has taught us how defective genes
can also produce disturbances of develop-
ment. It has been difficult to reach the
well protected embryos of mammals with
such experimental weapons, but progress
is being made, and a science of experi-
mental teratology in mammals is probably
not far oflf. The attention of physicians
and even of the lay public has recently
been directed to the damage to human
infants in utero produced by certain dis-
orders of immunity caused by the "Rh"
factor, and by the occurrence of the virus
disease rubella (German measles) in early
pregnancy. In our laboratory we have al-
ready begun an effort (admittedly unsuc-
cessful thus far) to analyze the rubella
problem by experiments on monkeys.
Enough has been said to show that in-
vestigators of the embryology of man and
the higher mammals not only are follow-
ing a so-called pure science, but are more
and more in a position to contribute their
knowledge to cooperative study of prob-
lems that are of vital practical importance.
During the war it was frequently neces-
sary to explain to selective service boards
and similar public officers (people not at
the moment officially interested in theo-
retical science), in the small blank space
of a questionnaire, what the Department
of Embryology considered itself to be do-
ing for the national effort. The statement,
which fortunately seemed acceptable, was
that we are carrying on our share of the
research on which the maternal welfare
and "better baby" programs are based.
This explanation, of course oversimplified,
will serve to show that we are not unmind-
ful of our opportunity to render service to
the public through medical application of
embryology. There will, however, always
be a place in this Department, especially
in the unharassed times of peace, for re-
search workers, if such there be, who dis-
regard all thought of application and use-
fulness to study the development of the
human body simply because it is ineluc-
tably fascinating. If in some future day
the embryologists learn how to get at the
smallest units of life and split and recom-
bine them, as physics has reached inside
the atom, the resulting changes (which
will be as cataclysmic as the atomic bomb,
for good or evil) will have resulted from
the work of the cloistered theorists of
earlier years.
Discoveries about the embryonic devel-
opment of man and the other primates
place the embryologist in cooperative rela-
tionship also with students of biological
theory, philosophy, and even religion. The
relation of man to the other animals is
greatly illuminated by the study of his
development. This is an old story which
had its lurid chapters in the days of con-
flict over evolution. Now that the animal
affinities of man are accepted, the embry-
ologist is able to make a sober contribu-
tion to the details of primate evolution.
Mammalian embryos not only possess in-
cipient anatomical organs and systems like
those of adults, which may be studied for
evidences of resemblance and dissimilarity
as in ordinary comparative anatomy; they
also possess a set of organs not present in
the adult, namely, the placenta and the
DEPARTMENT OF EMBRYOLOGY
93
embryonic membranes and cavities of the
chorion, amnion, allantois, and yolk sac.
These organs differ extraordinarily from
species to species, and thus they are of very
great importance to the investigator who
seeks to know how one animal or group
of animals is related to another. It hap-
pens that in man and the other primates
there are enough differences in the pla-
centas and membranes to give us light
on the old Darwinian question, whether
man's eldest living relatives are to be found
among the anthropoid apes or the mon-
keys. Given time, means, and sufficient
ingenuity, we have much to learn from an
extension of our program of embryological
study, especially the study of the earliest
stages of embryonic development, to the
infrahuman primates of Africa, Asia, and
America.
The understanding of man's place in the
animal world, gained from such studies
as these in association with other branches
of comparative zoology, necessarily influ-
ences the whole structure of human edu-
cation, lawmaking, and philosophy.
RESEARCHES, COMPLETED AND IN PROGRESS
Developmental Stages of Human
Embryos
Dr. G. L. Streeter continues actively his
program of classification of human em-
bryos. This undertaking was fully ex-
plained in Year Book No. 42. Its aim is
the description and depiction of human
primitive bronchi. Stage XVI (32-34 days)
is readily detected by the appearance of
the first retinal pigment. The secondary
bronchi are clearly recognizable. In stage
XVII (34-36 days) the retina is heavily
pigmented. The secondary bronchi begin
to branch. The calyces of the renal pelvis
first semicircular canals of the internal ear
(vestibular apparatus) are seen. Jacobson's
organ is distinct in the nasal region.
The essence of Dr. Streeter's plan is thus
to select, describe, and depict characteristic
structural details at each stage. A fact thus
revealed, perhaps not unexpected theo-
embryos in such manner that successive a/Pear- In staSe XVI,n (3f3» daYs)i the
stages of development can be recognized
by obvious characteristics, both external
and internal. By this means embryologists
will be able to indicate the stage of devel-
opment of any embryo by reference to
Streeter's numbered stages, thus obviating
all sorts of difficulties inherent in the
comparison of objects which differ, as they retically, but very striking as brought out
develop, by so many variables at once. The by this research, is the high correlation
descriptions of stages XV to XVIII are between the various organs of the body as
now well advanced and will be published to time of first appearance and stages of
in volume XXXII of the Contributions to development. If, for example, in a well
Embryology. preserved embryo the eyes are just begin-
Stage XV, including embryos of age ning to show retinal pigment, then it is
estimated as 30-32 days, is characterized certain that secondary bronchi will be
by detachment and closure of the lens present in the lungs. If any organ lags
vesicle. At this and the two following behind, there is something wrong, and this
stages, the development of the bronchus is is generally evidenced by multiple devia-
useful for the comparison of sectioned em- tions. In a brief review of Dr. Streeter's
bryos; in stage XV the secondary bronchi work only a few of the characteristics
are distinguishable as swellings on the which he has studied can be mentioned;
The Rate of Abnormality in Early
Embryos
qa CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
his successive chapters must be read to already beginning to find their way into
appreciate the march of developmental the textbooks of embryology,
events. Dr. Hertig and Dr. Rock, reviewing
their work for this report, state that the
Very Early Human Embryos nineteen embryos range from a specimen
—,, 11 • i i -iiii 4 days of age (a segmenting ovum found
lhe collection has been enriched by the 7 . , ° \ . v r ^
, „ , t^ a i tree in the uterine cavity) to one io days
receipt rrom our collaborators Dr. Arthur £ n • i i i / ■ i /
,_, TT i -r^ t 1 t^ 1 r i ot a£e> a well imbedded ovum with early,
1. Hertig and Dr. John Rock or several . , , , . . .„. „. \
. r 1 i i 11 i • i simply branched chorionic villi. Eleven or
embrvos or the late second and the third , . . , , ,
. . , ,. . , , . the nineteen specimens are mdged to be
week, in addition to those reported in r , , . 1
,. _. , ,— . til • perfectly normal and encompass the stages
previous Year Books. 1 hese valuable speci- L , t . f ■ , r , ° f
r . . . , , ■_. * TT or embryologic development rrom that or
mens have been sectioned by Dr. L n. , . , , , , , . , , v
. t , . . 1-1 re ia recently implanted blastocyst (jy2 days)
Heuser, aided by the technical start, and , i . .„ y; ' , / /
, .til i- i to that or an early villous ovum ( io days),
together with ample photographic records ^ . . . , i i • i •
° i-i ii • r 1 -^ne remaining eight are pathological in
are preserved in the collection or the i i • i i • •
_^ r one way or another, their abnormalities m-
Department. , ,. , ,. r r ,
r eluding such diverse ractors as faulty seg-
mentation, absence of the embryonic disk,
extreme hypoplasia of the trophoblast, and
shallow implantation of an otherwise nor-
This past year has seen the completion mal ovum,
of preliminary studies by Dr. Hertig and It is apparent from these figures that the
Dr. Rock, at the Free Hospital for Women index of fertility in married women of
in Brookline, Massachusetts, on a series of proved fertility, with at least one recorded
one hundred fertile married women on coitus during the estimated time of ovula-
whom a therapeutic hysterectomy was per- tion preceding the hysterectomy, is 19 per
formed in known calendar relation to the cent. Equally apparent is the fact that a
next expected menstrual period. The in- high proportion, 42 per cent, of these early
vestigation was supported by the Carnegie pregnancies would probably have failed to
Corporation of New York, by the Carnegie reach term. Indeed, it is doubtful whether
Institution of Washington through this the abnormal segmenting ovum of 4 days
Department, and by the Milton Fund of would have implanted and, if it had,
Harvard University. The surgically re- whether it would have caused the next
moved uteri were carefully searched for expected menstrual period to be missed,
the presence of young fertilized ova, either Of the seven pathological ova that were
free in the uterine cavity or implanted on implanted, it is doubtful whether the two
the endometrium. During the seven years most abnormal forms would have more
of this study, nineteen such specimens than briefly delayed the next expected
were found. These form the Hertig-Rock menstrual period. Thus it is apparent that
collection of very early human embryos, many fertilized human ova, as is the case
already well known to readers of these with lower animals, are destined to abort
annual reports, in which many of the indi- before the fetal stage is reached. Certainly,
vidual specimens have been discussed as many of the abnormal forms encountered
they were added to the Carnegie Collec- in this study have their pathological coun-
tion in this laboratory. Several of them terparts in ova spontaneously aborted by
have been published in full and they are patients during the early months of preg-
DEPARTMENT OF EMBRYOLOGY
95
nancy. Therefore, these early abnormal
forms of pregnancy serve to teach us some-
thing about the pathogenesis of human
abortion, a subject about which little is
known at present. This is so because the
specimen from a spontaneously aborting
patient is relatively so mature that it is
impossible to trace accurately the sequence
of events leading to the premature expul-
sion of the nonviable ovum.
During the past year, two of the speci-
mens mentioned above were recovered
from the last thirteen patients of the series.
Both specimens were abnormal with re-
spect to their embryos, although the
chorions were normal. The younger speci-
men (Carnegie no. 8299), estimated to be
about 12 days of age, shows a disoriented
germ disk (embryo), of which the cephalic
end points directly toward the trophoblast,
while the caudal end, at the site of the
potential body stalk, is free in the chorionic
cavity. It is unlikely that a good body
stalk or umbilical cord would have formed.
This may be the early stage of the fre-
quently found type of pathologic ovum
which invariably aborts and whose embryo
is either nodular or stunted and is attached
to the trophoblast by a defective body
stalk.
The older specimen (Carnegie no. 8290),
an early villous ovum about 13 days of
age, likewise shows a serious defect of
its embryonic disk, the primitive ectoderm
being disoriented with respect to the un-
derlying primitive endoderm and its asso-
ciated yolk sac. It appears as though the
dorsal part of the premature embryo had
slipped horizontally with respect to the
ventral part, an abnormality which would
probably interfere with any proper axial
differentiation of the future embryo.
Continuing their report, Dr. Hertig and
Dr. Rock state that regardless of whether
their tentative interpretation of the rela-
tion of such defective early embryos to
subsequent defects in the aborting ovum is
correct or not, the fact cannot be gainsaid
that here are a series of intrinsically defec-
tive ova whose environment is apparently
normal. Hence this series ofTers additional
evidence of such a condition as "germ
plasm defect," unsatisfactory and all-inclu-
sive though the term may be.
During the past year, the detailed de-
scription of one of the jYz-day ova and
the 9!/4-day ovum (Carnegie no. 8020 and
no. 8004) has reached galley-proof stage,
and its appearance in the Contributions to
Embryology is expected in the near future.
In addition, plastic sheet reconstructions of
two ova (Carnegie no. 8155 and no. 8171)
have been prepared in anticipation of com-
pleting a detailed description of these two
specimens for early publication.
Attempts to Fertilize Human Ova
in Vitro
Dr. John Rock reports that during
1 944-1 945 he has continued his efforts to
fertilize and initiate cleavage of human
ovarian eggs. This work, primarily sup-
ported by the Milton Fund of Harvard
University, has also depended upon facili-
ties provided for the discovery of early
human embryos (discussed in the previous
paragraphs) supported by the Carnegie
Corporation of New York and more
recently by the Carnegie Institution of
Washington through the Department of
Embryology.
A year ago (see bibliography), Dr. Rock
and his associate Mrs. Menkin reported on
the fertilization of three such eggs. Dur-
ing the past year, 103 follicular eggs in
the preovulatory phase have been recov-
ered from operative patients. The eggs
were cultured in serum and 76 of them
were exposed to spermatozoa, but none
were successfully fertilized. Forty-nine of
the eggs were cultured, before exposure
96
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
Phosphatase in the Ovary; Fate of the
Theca Interna
to sperm, in serum to which had been all younger than one month old. These are
added a small amount of hyaluronidase. being photographed and sectioned, and
English investigators (Rowlands and promise to yield much information about
McLean) had found that this enzyme early placentation and the formation of the
would break down the gel of the corona embryonic membranes. It is a most inter-
radiata, allowing the sperm to penetrate esting fact, in view of the studies of Hertig
the egg. Thus far, Dr. Rock has not found and Rock, mentioned above, on the pro-
this to be of much assistance, but he plans portional incidence of early abnormality
to try a larger variety of techniques. of human embryos, that one and possibly
two of the first three Gillman baboon em-
Embryos of the Baboon bryos are pathological. Such early ab-
T i. 1 r i • • normalities are as valuable, in their way,
In an earlier paragraph or this report it . . • i i rr
, , . , i as normal specimens, provided a sum-
has been pointed out how we may get .11 . % 111
, , , . c 1 ciently large series can be assembled to
clues as to the evolution or man by com- : ° r , ,
£ 1 1 r 1 • permit proper comparison or normal and
panson or. the embryos or the various , r, r r
. 1 . _. abnormal types,
primate species with one another. I he Jr
value of such comparative study has long
been recognized by the Department. It
possesses, through the efforts of Dr. C. G.
Hartman, a noteworthy collection of em- Dr. George W. Corner has completed
bryos of the rhesus monkey described in a the preliminary stages of an investigation
recent monograph by Dr. C. H. Heuser of the distribution of the enzyme known
and Dr. G. L. Streeter. A beginning has as alkaline phosphatase in the cytoplasm
been made also with respect to anthro- of ovarian cells of various species. This
poids, two early embryos of the chimpan- enzyme, as its name indicates, has the
zee being in the collection. In 1942 the property of splitting phosphate ions from
Department enjoyed a long visit from the compounds of phosphoric acid, in an
Dr. Joseph Gillman, of the University of alkaline environment. It is widely dis-
the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South tributed in the organs and tissues of the
Africa. Dr. Gillman possesses extensive body. In bony tissue it is obviously con-
knowledge of the breeding habits and cerned with the metabolism of calcium by
physiology of reproduction of the baboon its action on calcium phosphate. In tissues
(Papio porcarius), and required only more like the ovary its function is less obvious;
extensive facilities for collecting, housing, probably it is concerned in the metabolism
and breeding animals to enable him to col- of phospholipids. Dr. Corner's attention
lect early embryos. As the result of plans was turned in this direction by a recent
developed during his visit, the Trustees publication of the Chicago histopathologist
of the Carnegie Corporation of New York Gomori, who devised a method of demon-
made a grant late in 1942 from their British strating the presence of alkaline phos-
Dominions and Colonies Fund (to be ad- phatase in microscopical sections. Gomori
ministered through this Department) to included the ovaries of a few species among
provide facilities for such an enterprise, the tissues which he studied in cursory
The effort has now begun to yield results, fashion. Because he found that in some
for during the year 1 944-1 945 Dr. Gillman animals the theca interna and the mem-
has sent five embryos of Papio porcarius, brana granulosa of the Graafian follicle
DEPARTMENT OF EMBRYOLOGY
97
differ in their content of alkaline phos-
phatase, there seemed to be a possibility
of using the method to trace the fate of the
theca cells in the formation of the corpus
luteum, and thus to contribute to the solu-
tion of an old problem.
In brief, the result was that in the do-
mestic sow the fate of the theca interna
can be clearly followed, because the theca
interna is rich in phosphatase and the
granulosa lacks it. The theca cells, thus
traced, persist throughout the formation of
the corpus luteum and become scattered
among the granulosa lutein cells. This
confirms a description of the origin of the
corpus luteum of the sow, published by
Corner in 1919, which has been disputed.
In the several other species studied, all
possible variations of the distribution of
phosphatase between theca interna and
granulosa are found; in the rhesus mon-
key, for example, both these layers are rich
in phosphatase; in the rabbit the enzyme
is plentiful in the granulosa and absent
from the theca interna. The method can-
not therefore be used in these species to
trace the theca cells after rupture of the
follicle. This puzzling difference between
species, however, may ultimately afford an
explanation of the function of the enzyme,
by revealing the association between phos-
phatase and other constituents of the
ovarian cells.
Injurious Effect of Light upon Dividing
Cells in Cultures Containing
Fluorescent Substances
Certain substances have the property of
fluorescing, that is, of emitting radiations
when themselves radiated, for example
with light rays. The emitted radiation is
generally of longer wave length than the
exciting radiation, and is thus of different
color. This phenomenon accounts for the
peculiar glow of solutions of eosin and
10
the bluish color of ordinary machine oil
seen in strong daylight. It is more vividly
displayed by various fluorescent substances
when observed in the dark under the in-
visible rays of ultraviolet light. It has long
been known that animal and plant tissues
containing fluorescent substances are in-
jured by light. A few years ago renewed
attention to this subject was stimulated by
the discovery that cancer cells growing in
tissue cultures containing eosin were more
sensitive to light than normal cells grow-
ing in the same cultures.
Dr. Margaret Reed Lewis has analyzed
this phenomenon of photosensitivity of liv-
ing cells in the presence of fluorescent sub-
stances by growing chick embryo cells in
culture media containing various fluores-
cent substances, namely chlorophyll, diben-
zanthracene, methylcholanthrene, eosin,
and neutral red. Attention was centered
on the dividing cells because it has been
found previously that dividing cells in
growing cultures are more sensitive than
resting* cells. Dr. Lewis found that the
fluorescent substances named above, when
added in suitably dilute amounts, were not
toxic to the process of cell division as long
as the cultures were kept in the dark, but
when a strong light was passed through
the cultures the cells quickly became dam-
aged. The mitotic spindles and chromo-
somes and also the cytoplasm were in-
jured. If the exposure to light was pro-
longed, the cells died. Cells showing only
a slight injury were able to recover when
the cultures were returned to the dark.
These effects were apparently not due
to the light emitted from the activated
fluorescent substance, for the cells con-
tinued to grow normally when irradiated
by light that, had been passed through
eosin or neutral red solutions outside, but
very close to, the culture slides. It appears
that the cells were damaged by changes
9§
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
brought about in the medium during the
activation of the fluorescent material.
Induction and Transplantability of
Sarcomata in Rats
Dr. Margaret R. Lewis, working in col-
laboration with Dr. Helen Dean King at
the Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biol-
ogy, has completed an extensive study of
the biological factors governing induction
and transplantation of malignant tumors
(sarcomata) in rats. The two workers
made use of the carcinogenic substances
dibenzanthracene, benzpyrene, and methyl-
cholanthrene. These substances, when in-
jected subcutaneously into rats, produce
cancer of the connective tissue, that is to
say, sarcoma. The experiment involved
such injections into large numbers of rats
of various genetic strains, and subsequent
transplantation of the induced tumors into
other rats of the same various strains. The
object of the work was to discover whether
the differences between the strains, evi-
denced in physical characteristics, growth
rate, behavior, and reaction to stimuli,
would affect the character and growth of
the induced tumors or of the implanted
tumor grafts. The strains used were the
"King A" inbred albinos of the Wistar
Institute, gray Norway rats of the Wistar
Institute, three crosses between these, and
nine different mutant strains of diverse
origin. In all, nearly 10,000 rats were used.
Every one of the rats in thirty litters from
the fourteen strains survived the carcino-
genic injection and developed a sarcoma.
The tumors thus produced behaved some-
what differently under different circum-
stances of sex and strain; they developed
earlier in males than in females, and grew
more slowly in gray Norway rats than in
the other strains.
The transplanted tumors also behaved
differently under different circumstances.
They were, as would be expected, more
transplantable to rats of their own strain
of origin than to the other strains. Tumors
that originated in the highly inbred King
A rats were 100 per cent transferable to
rats of the same strain and to two of the
crosses with Norway rats. When inocu-
lated into the other strains, however, they
did not behave alike. Some grew in some
of the other strains, some did not; in other
words, there was a tendency to be strain
specific. Tumors that originated in rats of
less inbred strains grew much less fre-
quently in the rats to which they were
transplanted. One strain, the "curly" mu-
tant, was highly resistant to the growth
of sarcomata transplanted from rats of its
own and of other strains. Tumor grafts
grew faster when implanted into young
rats than into old rats. Growth of the
grafts was not influenced by coat color.
In summary, the sarcomatous malignant
tumors of rats induced by carcinogenic
agents proved to be subject, as regards their
growth, to biological influences which are
associated with different hereditary history
(strain) of the rats into which they are
transplanted.
Failure of Purified Penicillin to
Retard Sarcoma
In March 1944 Mr. Ivor Cornman, who
had been working at the Wistar Institute
under the guidance of Dr. M. R. Lewis,
published the finding that the growth of
sarcoma tissue in tissue culture is inhibited
by penicillin. The penicillin used in his
experiments was a partially purified sam-
ple. Dr. M. R. Lewis proceeded to try the
effect of the sodium salt of penicillin upon
sarcoma, using mice of the Bagg inbred
strain implanted with a sarcoma native
to the strain. Ample doses of the penicillin,
which was highly purified, failed to inhibit
the growth of sarcoma in vivo. Dr. Lewis
DEPARTMENT OF EMBRYOLOGY qq
next tested penicillin upon sarcoma cells versity School of Hygiene, and Dr. Robert
growing in tissue culture, using both a M. Rankin. These workers compared the
highly purified colorless sodium salt and a rate of exchange of sodium chloride from
less pure yellow sodium salt. The latter, blood to tissues in normal animals and in
in the higher of the concentrations used, animals placed in a state of surgical trau-
killed the tumor cells and damaged the matic shock under anesthesia. The move-
normal cells. This part of the experiment ment of the salt was followed by using
confirmed the observations of Cornman. radioactive sodium chloride (Na24Cl) as
The highly purified penicillin salt, how- explained in previous Year Books. The
ever, failed to inhibit the growth of sarco- investigators ran into a certain amount of
matous and of normal cells. Dr. Lewis difficulty owing to the complications of the
concludes that the factor present in the less problem. Their work disclosed, for ex-
purified sodium salt of penicillin is lost ample, that the curve describing the rate
from the highly purified product. of transfer of sodium chloride from blood
vessels to tissues is complex and can only
Transcapillary Exchange of Sodium in be understood by assuming that there are
Normal and Shocked Dogs two rates at which the salt passes back and
Previous annual reports of this Depart- £orth between Plas™a and extravascular
ment, in Year Books No. 41 and No. 43, fluids> Presumably due to differences in
reviewed a series of studies by Dr. Louis B. dlfoent Parts of the body.
Flexner and various collaborators on the After £ul1 mathematical analysis of the
transfer of substances across the placenta results 2t 1S shown that in shocked, un-
from mother to fetus, and from blood to treated ammals the total number of milli'
tissues across the blood capillary walls of £rams o£ sodmm exchanged across the
the body in general. The methods used in caPlllai7 walls per unit of time is about
these important studies were applicable to 5° P^ cent of the normal. When the ani-
one of the most serious of war problems, mals are treated by replacement therapy
namely traumatic shock. Dr. Alfred Gell- witn saline solution or serum, the defective
horn, who was working with Dr. Flexner rate oi exchange is not improved, in spite
before our entrance into the war, under- of temporary better clinical appearance of
took studies on the physiology of shock the animals.
in our laboratory under a grant from the This finding, namely of a lessened trans-
Committee on Medical Research of the capillary movement of sodium, is not easily
Office of Scientific Research and Develop- reconciled with current theories of trau-
ment. A summary of the work has now matic shock which postulate an increase
been published by Dr. Gellhorn, Dr. Mar- of capillary permeability as fundamental to
garet Merrell, of the Johns Hopkins Uni- the diseased state.
DIFFUSION AND POPULARIZATION OF RESULTS
As already mentioned, the Director's ested are reviewed for the educated general
Terry Lectures, given in March 1944 at reader. Dr. Corner also published during
Yale University, have appeared in book the year, by request of the editor of Parents'
form under the title Ourselves unborn. In Magazine, a journal issued under the aus-
this volume, many of the problems in pices of several university groups, a popu-
which this Department has been inter- lar article on human sterility from the
100
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
standpoint of the scientific investigator.
Dr. Heuser, Dr. Burns, and Dr. Corner
each lectured by invitation once or twice
during the year to the students of Johns
Hopkins Medical School.
A significant demonstration of the use-
fulness, outside our own walls, of our large
collection of embryological materials is
given by the latest textbook of human em-
bryology, an excellent work by W. J.
Hamilton, of St. Bartholomew's Hospital
Medical College, London; J. D. Boyd, of
the London Hospital Medical College; and
H. W. Mossman, of the University of Wis-
consin (Human embryology, Cambridge
[England], HefTer, 1945). Dr. Boyd and
Dr. Mossman have been visiting investi-
gators at the Department of Embryology
in past years, and are therefore directly
familiar with the resources of the De-
partment. More than 90 of the 364 illustra-
tions in the new textbook are drawn from
the embryos of the Carnegie Collection or
from articles by workers connected with
the Department. It is a pleasure to note
that Professors Hamilton, Boyd, and Moss-
man dedicate their book to Dr. George L.
Streeter jointly with Professor T. H. Bryce,
of Glasgow.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
*Burns, R. K., Jr. The differentiation of the
phallus in the opossum and its reactions to
sex hormones. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub.
557, Contr. to Embryol., vol. 31, pp. 147-162
(i945).
* The effects of male hormone on the
differentiation of the urinogenital sinus in
young opossums. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub.
557, Contr. to Embryol., vol. 31, pp. 163-
175 (i945)-
Corner, G. W. Alkaline phosphatase in the
ovarian follicles and corpora lutea. Science,
vol. 100, pp. 270-271 (1944).
Las hormonas en la reproduccion hu-
mana. (Translation into Spanish, by Ines
L. C. de Allende, of "The hormones in
human reproduction," 1942). Buenos Aires,
Libreria Hachette (1944).
Report of survey of medical records
created by the federal government. National
Research Council (1944). (The general
section, pp. 1-12, prepared by Dr. Corner
as Chairman of the Committee on Medical
Records, National Research Council.)
Ourselves unborn: an embryologist's
essay on man. The Terry Lectures, Yale
University, 1944. Yale University Press
(1944).
The gifts of the good physician. A
commencement address delivered on Septem-
* Indicates contributions discussed in report
of previous year (Year Book No. 43, 1943-
1944).
ber 23, 1944, to the graduating class in
medicine of the School of Medicine and
Dentistry of the University of Rochester.
Privately printed by Strong Memorial Hos-
pital, Rochester, N. Y. (1944).
— Why can't we have a baby? Parents'
Mag., vol. 20, pp. 22-23, 59~6o, 62, 64, 66,
69, 70 (1945).
with the collaboration of C. G. Hart-
man and G. W. Bartelmez. Development,
organization, and breakdown of the corpus
luteum in the rhesus monkey. Carnegie
Inst. Wash. Pub. 557, Contr. to Embryol.,
vol. 31, pp. 1 17-146 (1945)-
Gellhorn, A., M. Merrell, and R. M. Rankin.
The rate of transcapillary exchange of so-
dium in normal and shocked dogs. Amer.
Jour. Physiol., vol. 142, pp. 407-427 (1944).
Hertig, A. T., and J. Rock. On a normal human
ovum not over seven and one-half days of
age. Anat. Rec, vol. 91, p. 281 (1945).
On a normal human ovum of
approximately nine to ten days of age.
Anat. Rec, vol. 91, p. 281 (1945).
Two human ova of the pre-
villous stage, having a developmental age
of about seven and nine days respectively.
Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. 557, Contr. to
Embryol., vol. 31, pp. 65-84 (1945).
— See Heuser, C. H.
:Heuser, C. H., J. Rock, and A. T. Hertig.
Two human embryos showing early stages
of the definitive yolk sac. Carnegie Inst.
DEPARTMENT OF EMBRYOLOGY
101
Wash. Pub. 557, Contr. to Embryol., vol. 31,
pp. 85-99 (i945) •
King, H. D., and M. R. Lewis. A study of in-
ducement and transplantability of sarcomata
in rats. Growth, vol. 9, pp. 155-176 (1945).
Lewis, M. R. The failure of purified penicillin
to retard the growth of grafts of sarcoma
in mice. Science, vol. 100, pp. 313-315
(1944).
See King, H. D.
*Marchetti, A. A. A pre-villous human ovum
accidentally recovered from a curettage
specimen. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. 557,
Contr. to Embryol., vol. 31, pp. 107-115
(i945)-
Menkin, M. F. See Rock, J.
Merrell, M. See Gellhorn, A.
Rankin, R. M. See Gellhorn, A.
Rock, J., and M. F. Menkin. In vitro fertili-
zation and cleavage of human ovarian eggs.
Science, vol. 100, pp. 105-107 (1944).
See Hertig, A. T.; Heuser, C. H.
*Streeter, G. L. Developmental horizons in
human embryos. Description of age group
xiii, embryos about 4 or 5 millimeters long,
and age group xiv, period of indentation of
the lens vesicle. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub.
557, Contr. to Embryol., vol. 31, pp. 27-63
(i945)-
*Wilson, K. M. A normal human ovum of
sixteen days development (the Rochester
ovum). Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. 557,
Contr. to Embryol., vol. 31, pp. 101-106
(i945)-
DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS
Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, New Yor\
M. DEMEREC, Director
During the war, because of the nature
of our work, staff members of this De-
partment were not called upon to par-
ticipate in war research to any considerable
extent. The Department carried out two
war research contracts, one with the War
Production Board and the other with the
Office of Scientific Research and Develop-
ment. In addition, several members par-
ticipated in other research related to the
war emergency. The objective of our work
under WPB contract was the development
of a strain of Penicillium yielding a high
content of penicillin. This work was suc-
cessfully carried on by E. Sansome, M.
Demerec, and H. E. Warmke; and a high-
yielding strain, now used in production,
was selected from among mutants induced
by X-ray treatment. The contract with
OSRD, which is still in effect, deals with
the genetic aspects of resistance in bacteria.
For two years Warmke cooperated with
the Bureau of Plant Industry of the U. S.
Department of Agriculture in research
aimed at the development of strains of fiber
hemp with reduced marihuana content.
He also participated in breeding studies
on the rubber-producing Russian dan-
delion {Taraxacum \o\-saghyz). Kauf-
mann, in collaboration with Dr. A. Hol-
laender, of the National Institute of
Health, Bethesda, Maryland, investigated
the effect of ultraviolet radiation on the
mammalian eye, with the purpose of de-
veloping standards for prevention of in-
dustrial hazards. Demerec and Potter took
part in research at the Biological Labora-
tory, under contract with the Chemical
Warfare Service, relating to the production
and properties of aerosols. For one phase
of this work, MacDowell supplied mice
from his colony. Since 1943 Fano has been
active at the Ballistic Research Laboratory,
Aberdeen, Maryland, first on a part-time
basis and later as a full-time worker. The
Department cooperated with the Office of
War Information by preparing for its
Genetics News Letter monthly statements
giving abstracts of important papers and
brief summaries of other developments
in the field of genetics.
Several members of the Department
were taken into military service. In the
Army Air Forces Dr. J. S. Potter served
for a brief period as a captain, Louis R.
Stillwell, Jr., and Robert Holl are serving
as officers, and Dr. R. A. Miller is working
as a corporal in a research laboratory.
In October 1944 Dr. Oscar Riddle re-
tired from the Institution, but he remained
with the Department until August of 1945
in order to complete his manuscripts. In
September 1945 he became visiting pro-
fessor of the Department of State in Brazil,
Uruguay, and Argentina. Riddle came to
the Department from the University of
Chicago in 1912, as a Research Associate of
the Institution. He brought with him the
late Professor C. O. Whitman's pigeon
material, and spent his first few years at
Cold Spring Harbor in editing Whitman's
work for posthumous publication. In 1914
Riddle was appointed a staff member of
the Department. During his entire stay
here he worked almost exclusively with
pigeons and doves as experimental ma-
terial; and his primary interest was in
problems of sexuality, reproduction, and
internal secretions. Although his approach
was physiological, he was always aware of
103
104
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
genetical applications; and on many occa-
sions he was able to trace physiological
differences to differences in genetic con-
stitution of the birds. When in 1932 he
discovered a new hormone, prolactin, the
emphasis on chemical aspects of his prob-
lems became greater. From that time on
a chemist was included among the work-
ers in his group; and this has had a signifi-
cant effect on the work of the whole De-
partment, broadening the general range of
interest of the group. With Dr. Riddle's
retirement the members of the Depart-
ment have felt the loss not only of their
oldest colleague, but also of a good friend
and a sympathetic adviser.
Dr. H. E. Warmke left the Department
in August 1945, to organize a Department
of Plant Breeding at the Institute of
Tropical Agriculture in Puerto Rico.
Much of the effort of Riddle and his
associates during the year has been con-
centrated on analysis and summarization
of data obtained in long-term investiga-
tions. The manuscript of a small volume
on the subject of carbohydrate and fat
metabolism in pigeons has been completed.
The results of the twenty-four-year study
on the relation of endocrines to constitu-
tion in doves and pigeons have been sum-
marized in the more extensive forthcom-
ing volume "Endocrines and constitution
in doves and pigeons." McDonald and
Riddle have finished their studies on the
effect of reproduction and estrogen ad-
ministration on the partition of the various
calcium, phosphorus, and nitrogen com-
ponents of pigeon plasma. The nonultra-
filtrable calcium was found to exist in
three forms: (a) colloidal calcium phos-
phate, (b) calcium bound to the phospho-
protein, serum vitellin, and (c) calcium
bound to the plasma proteins other than
vitellin. Increments in (a) and (b) ac-
counted for all the increases in nonul-
trafiltrable calcium resulting from endog-
enous or administered estrogen. The cal-
cium-combining capacity of the phospho-
protein, serum vitellin, is apparently 8 to 9
times greater than that of the other plasma
proteins. All the changes in the various
components that occur in the plasma of
female pigeons at or near egg production
can be duplicated by the injection of es-
trogens; and estrogens are effective in ma-
ture and immature, normal, parathyroid-
ectomized, and hypophysectomized pi-
geons of both sexes. Thyroxine, when ad-
ministered simultaneously with estrogen
in equal amounts by weight, prevented
the marked estrogen-induced increases in
plasma calcium, phosphorus, and neutral
fat. It did not measurably inhibit the
ability of estrogen to promote formation
of endosteal bone or growth of the oviduct.
McDonald has continued her studies on
the alcohol solubility of the plasma pro-
teins. These have shown that serum al-
bumin (and, to a lesser extent, some of
the globulin fractions) is highly soluble,
in the range of pH below its isoelectric
point, in 95 per cent ethanol. Hollander
and Riddle have noted the occasional onset
of nongenetic partial melanism in adult
female pigeons of essentially wild-type
coloration. This partial melanism was as-
sociated with only slight exposure to sun-
light and enlargement of the parathyroids.
It appeared after one or more molts. The
blackening, when it did not involve entire
feathers, produced transverse bands on the
feathers, not longitudinal streaks such as
are typical of mosaic effects. Parathyroid
enlargement and defective ossification of
the bones were shown to occur regularly
in young pigeons reared on a mixed-grain
diet in the absence of direct sunlight
(vitamin D deficiency). Melanism, how-
ever, was not found in these squabs.
MacDowell has found that the Cold
Spring Harbor albino strain of mice
(Balb) has a relatively high susceptibility
DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS
105
to spontaneous leukemia, although the re-
sistance of this strain to all causes of death
is so great, and the appearance of leuke-
mia is so delayed, that this marked suscep-
tibility was not recognized until a special
study was recently completed. Dr. Gasic
came to this laboratory as a Fellow of
the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial
Foundation from the University of Chile,
Santiago, to test upon leukemic growth
the efficacy of different steroid hormones,
which had been found by Dr. A. Lip-
schiitz, of the Chilean National Health
Service, to have a striking influence on
fibrous tumors in guinea pigs. Using a
virulent line of transplanted mouse leu-
kemia, Gasic found that death was delayed
slightly (less than one day) in mice treated
with pellets of testosterone propionate, but
that desoxycorticosterone and progesterone
had no effect on the time of death. Gasic
has pointed out that many of the features
of the alarm reaction of Selye are shown
by mice dying with highly virulent trans-
planted leukemias. Biesele has found that
normal chromosome size varies with age
in the rat. According to the tissue, there
is an increase, a constancy, or a decrease.
Similarly, in normal lymphatic tissue of
C58 mice there is an ontogenetic decrease
in size of chromosomes, but in the transi-
tion to spontaneous leukemias and from
them to long-transplanted leukemic lines
there is an increase in size of chromosomes,
which occurs gradually rather than by an
abrupt doubling. Chromosome size in leu-
kemic cells is influenced by the sex of the
host and can be modified by means of male
sex hormone.
Kaufmann has continued his analysis of
the mechanism of chromosome breakage
and recombination by treating sperma-
tozoa of Drosophila with combinations
either of X-rays and ultraviolet rays or of
X-rays and near infrared rays. Ultraviolet
radiation of wave length 2537 A, when it
penetrates spermatozoa previously exposed
to X-rays, effectively reduces the frequency
(as compared with the controls) of chro-
mosomal rearrangements that are detected
by analysis of salivary-gland chromosomes.
Near infrared radiation likewise, under
certain conditions of treatment, will reduce
the frequency of chromosomal rearrange-
ment; but the effect is not directly on the
regions of X-ray-induced breakage, as with
the ultraviolet radiation, but on those proc-
esses that make spermatozoa that were not
mature at the time of treatment available
for transfer in copulation. When treat-
ment with near infrared radiation pre-
cedes X-ray exposure, the chromosomes are
effectively sensitized to breakage by the
X-rays, as is indicated by the higher fre-
quency of detectable rearrangement as
compared with the controls. On the basis
of the extensive data (about 3750 pairs of
glands) collected in these and other studies,
Kaufmann has re-examined the question
of chromosome recombination, and now
reports that, so far as the X chromosome
of Drosophila melanogaster is concerned,
the degree of randomness of recombina-
tion varies according to whether the
breaks occur in euchromatin or in hetero-
chromatin.
Demerec has developed a special tech-
nique for detecting in Escherichia coli
mutants resistant to bacteriophages, which
involves applying the phage to the culture
in the form of a fine aerosol. With ma-
terial treated with ultraviolet radiation of
wave length 2513 A, evidence was ob-
tained that the increased mutation rate
induced by irradiation persists over a
considerable period of time, presumably
through a number of cell divisions. Luria
has detected two types of resistance to
penicillin in Staphylococcus. In one type
the bacteria are resistant because they
secrete penicillinase; in the other type there
is no evidence for an inactivator of penicil-
io6
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
lin. Mrs. Witkin has found that difference
in resistance to ultraviolet in E. coli is due
mainly to a difference in the ability of
bacteria to initiate division after irradia-
tion. Demerec has devised a method for
treating adult Drosophila with aqueous
solutions of various chemicals by keeping
the flies in an atmosphere containing an
aerosol of the solution in question. Obser-
vations made by Dr. Jack Schultz, of the
Lankenau Hospital Research Institute, on
flies treated with aerosols of various dyes
indicated that the material was present
in the crop and digestive organs of the
flies and, in some instances, in the testis.
Th. Dobzhansky, Research Associate of
the Institution, has been investigating the
rapid evolutionary changes discovered in
natural populations of the fly Drosophila
pseudoobscura in certain localities in Cali-
fornia. These changes seem to be con-
nected with the annual climatic cycle:
some genetic variants become more fre-
quent in the populations during the sum-
mer and other variants during the spring.
The causative agent that operates here is
natural selection; some variants are more
favorable in spring and others in summer
environments. This is interesting in itself,
because very few well established instances
of observable changes produced by natural
selection are known. What makes the
case of Drosophila pseudoobscura unique
is that the changes observed in nature can
be reproduced in part in the laboratory.
For this purpose, artificial populations of
flies of this species are set up in specially
constructed "population cages," and sam-
ples of these populations are taken and
examined from time to time. The most
significant result to date is that in popula-
tion cages kept at higher temperatures
(25 ° C, or summer room temperatures)
changes are observed which coincide both
in direction and in speed with those taking
place in natural populations during the
summer. At lower temperatures (160 C.)
the composition of the populations in the
population cages remains constant. This
shows that the advantages or disadvan-
tages that a genetic variation may produce
in an organism are greatly dependent on
even relatively small changes in the en-
vironment: at 25 ° C. some of the variants
involved in these experiments are much
superior to others in the struggle for sur-
vival, whereas at 160 C. all seem to be
equally viable. Now, natural populations
of at least some organisms are composed
of mixtures of numerous genetic variants,
with different environmental optima and
different responses to changes that may
occur in the milieu in which they live.
This fact permits us to understand the re-
markable adaptability shown by species of
many organisms, within short intervals of
time as well as in geological time, which is
one of the most important phenomena of
evolution.
Warmke has continued his investiga-
tions of polyploidy and sex in Melandrium.
He has found that the spontaneous break-
age of the Y chromosome observed pre-
viously is associated with bridge formation,
particularly at the second meiotic division.
By studying plants with various types of
Y-chromosome deficiency, which arose
from the spontaneous breakage, he has
been able to resolve the process of male
development into three separate steps: (1)
the initiation of maleness, (2) the com-
pletion of maleness, and (3) the suppres-
sion of femaleness. The first of these
processes is controlled by a gene or genes
near the centromere of the Y chromosome,
the second by a gene or genes near the top
of the differential arm, and the last by a
gene or genes near the end of the homol-
ogous arm. These steps appear to be
qualitatively distinct from one another.
During the fall of 1944, McClintock
spent a period of ten weeks at the Bio-
DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS
107
logical Laboratories of Stanford Univer- The very special behavior in successive
sity and undertook a preliminary investi- nuclear divisions of a recently broken end
gation of the chromosomes of Neurospora. of a chromosome was utilized as the mu-
Recent investigations with fungi have tation-inducing agent. In these studies,
demonstrated their superiority as genetic the short arm of chromosome 9 was the
materials, but little has been done to co- particular segment of the chromosomal
ordinate the genetic studies with studies complement under investigation. Theo-
of chromosomal conditions. If the full ad- retical considerations had indicated that it
vantages of fungi as genetic materials are should be possible to obtain a number of
to be realized, a knowledge of chromo- new mutations located at various positions
somal conditions and behavior is requi- throughout the full short arm of chromo-
site. Many genetic investigations would be some 9. To date, 69 mutations have been
simplified and our understanding greatly located in the short arm of chromosome 9,
enhanced if concomitant cytological anal- but they represent only 7 distinct types
yses could be made. The brief study of because of the repeated occurrence of the
the chromosomes and their behavior in same mutations. New phenomena of chro-
Neurospora has suggested not only that mosome behavior and new mutants with
some fungi are superior genetic materials, provocative phenotypic expressions have
but also that they may be adequate and in appeared as a part or an adjunct of these
some respects superior cytogenetic ma- experiments.
terials. The observations of Neurospora Because of the increasing pressure of his
included determinations of chromosome duties at the Ballistic Research Laboratory,
number, absolute and relative sizes of Fano could not continue to act as scientific
chromosomes, centromere positions, in- adviser for the Survey of the Human Re-
ternal organization of the chromosomes, sources of the State of Connecticut. There-
zygote formation, and chromosome be- fore Dr. Ruby Jo Reeves Kennedy, of the
havior in the two meiotic mitoses and the Connecticut College for Women, New
equational mitosis that follows, as well as London, Connecticut, has taken his place
scattered observations of several chromo- as scientific adviser; Miss Mabel A.
somal translocations. Several phenomena Matthews, Director of the Social Service
of considerable theoretical interest were Department of the Mansfleld-Southbury
noted; in particular, the contracted state Training Schools, is in charge of the
of the chromosomes at the time of synaptic project.
association. On returning to Cold Spring Dr. S. G. Stephens is spending a year
Harbor, Dr. McClintock resumed her with us as a Research Associate of the
studies with maize. These studies are Department. Dr. Edgar Anderson, of
aimed at the production of mutations in Washington University, St. Louis, Mis-
a specific segment of the chromosomal souri, and Dr. William L. Brown, of the
complement. If our knowledge of the Pioneer Hi-Bred Corn Company, John-
mutation processes is to advance, some ston, Iowa, spent about three weeks in
methods should be devised for the indue- June and July working with Dr. McClin-
tion of specific mutations, and some under- tock. A number of geneticists worked
standing should be obtained of the phe- during the summer at the Biological Labo-
nomena associated with the origin of these ratory, in close contact with our Depart-
mutations. Previous investigations with ment. These included Max Delbriick, of
maize have suggested a possible method. Vanderbilt University; Myron Gordon, of
io8
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
the New York Zoological Society; Ernst kenau Hospital Research Institute; and
Mayr, of the American Museum of Nat- C. C. Tan, of the National University of
ural History; Jack Schultz, of the Lan- Chekiang, China.
CYTOGENETIC STUDIES OF MAIZE AND NEUROSPORA
Barbara McClintock
Induction of Mutations in the Short
Arm of Chromosome 9 in Maize
In the past, many methods have been
used to induce mutations. The majority
of these methods do not give rise to spe-
cific mutations or to mutations confined
to specific regions of the chromosome com-
plement. Instead, a random assortment
and distribution of mutations are obtained.
A better understanding of the factors in-
volved in the mutation processes would be
possible if specific mutations associated
with specific regions of the chromosomal
complement could be effected. Recent in-
vestigations with maize have suggested sev-
eral approaches to the problem of induc-
tion of specific mutations. One of these
will be considered in this report. In pre-
vious reports, the repeated induction of
the mutants pyd (pale-yellow seedling),
wd (white seedling), and yg (yellow-
green seedling and plant) has been
described. Their origin has been asso-
ciated with the behavior in several succes-
sive nuclear divisions of a recently broken
end of a chromosome. This behavior has
been called the chromatid type of break-
age-fusion-bridge cycle. The pyd mutant
appeared when the chromosomal comple-
ment was deficient for a small terminal
segment of the short arm of chromosome
9; the wd mutant appeared when a slightly
longer terminal segment was missing. The
mutant phenotype bz (bronze) has like-
wise appeared following the production of
a specific internal deficiency, as previously
described. From this and other types of
evidence, it has been concluded that spe-
cific mutations will arise as the conse-
quence of specific minute deficiencies. If
the breakage-fusion-bridge cycle could give
rise to a number of different internal
minute deficiencies, and if the short arm
of chromosome 9 were subjected to this
process, various new mutants other than
pyd, wd, yg, and bz should appear, each
related to loss of a specific minute segment
within this arm. The methods used to iso-
late the mutants pyd, wd, yg, and bz were
selective. Therefore, a random sample of
mutants which might be produced as the
consequence of the breakage-fusion-bridge
cycle did not appear. During the past year,
nonselective methods have been used to
determine whether the expected new mu-
tants actually are being produced.
Cytological observations of the breakage-
fusion-bridge cycle, as well as theoretical
considerations, have indicated that this
cycle will result in the production of in-
ternal deficiencies. Occasionally, a chro-
matid bridge in an anaphase figure is
broken at more than one place. If a
chromatid bridge breaks in three places,
two centric chromosomes with a single
broken end and two acentric fragments,
each with both ends broken, will be
formed. It is possible for the two frag-
ments to enter one telophase nucleus along
with the centric chromosome. If, in this
nucleus, a particular type of fusion of
broken ends occurs, a centric rod chromo-
some with an internal deficiency and an
acentric ring fragment can be produced
(following fusion of the two broken ends
of the proximal fragment to form an
acentric ring, and fusion of one broken
end of the distal fragment with the broken
DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS
109
end of the centric chromosome). If the ranging from minute to extensive. There-
remaining free broken end of the centric fore, both the chromatid and the chromo-
rod chromosome healed and no longer some type of breakage cycle have been
underwent the breakage-fusion-bridge cy- utilized in an attempt to produce and
cle, a chromosome with an internal de- isolate new mutations confined within the
ficiency might subsequently be isolated, short arm of chromosome 9.
Sufficient cytological evidence has accumu- To isolate new mutants produced by the
lated to support the assumption that this chromatid bridge cycle, F2 progeny de-
is one method of origin of internal de- rived from Fi plants that had received a
ficiencies. Theoretical considerations sug- recently broken chromosome 9 from one
gest a second method for obtaining in- parent were examined. To isolate new
ternal deficiencies. Many investigators mutants produced by the chromosome
have considered the anaphase chromo- bridge cycle, the selfed progeny of indi-
somes to be multiple, that is, composed viduals that had received a newly broken
of two or more sister strands. It is prob- chromosome 9 from each parent were ex-
able that effective doubleness at anaphase amined. In many cases, the constitution of
is present in some cells or tissues and not the short arm of the chromosomes 9 with
in others. Should a chromatid bridge at healed broken ends had been considerably
anaphase be composed of two sister strands, altered during the period of the breakage
breakage need not occur at comparable cycles. Large as well as small duplications
positions in the two strands. Should the or deficiencies frequently were present,
breakage be unequal, the chromatin com- Many of these altered chromosomes 9
position of the two sister strands enter- did not pass through the gametes to
ing a nucleus would not be comparable, the next generation. Whenever the pollen
They could differ by various duplications grains and eggs carrying the chromo-
or deficiencies. If, in the following telo- somes 9 with altered short arms were
phase, fusion occurred between the two capable of effecting fertilization, the selfed
broken ends of the unequal strands, the progeny could include individuals homo-
chromatin components between the two zygous for these altered short arms. Should
centromeres would consist of two dis- an alteration, when homozygous, result in
similar instead of similar segments. A a changed phenotype, individuals with a
chromatid bridge and breakage of this distinct mutant character would appear in
bridge would follow in the next mitotic the progeny. Considerations of space and
division. Should the resulting newly labor confined the search for new muta-
broken end heal permanently, it might tions mainly to the kernels and the seed-
be possible subsequently to isolate a chro- lings. A number of new mutants appeared
matid with an internal deficiency. The in these progenies. The most clearly de-
type and extent of deficiency would de- fined of these mutants were selected to
pend on the positions of breakage in these determine whether or not they were lo-
two divisions. This process would give cated in the short arm of chromosome 9.
rise to internal deficiencies without frag- Only 3 of the distinctly new types of
ment formation. Again, theoretical consid- mutant have been sufficiently analyzed to
erations have suggested that the chromo- indicate their positions in the short arm.
some type of breakage-fusion-bridge cycle These are a small-kernel mutant (sml(), a
(see previous reports) should result in spotted-leaf mutant (spl), and a pale-green
chromosomes with internal deficiencies mutant (pg). The sm\ and spl mutants
no
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
are located in the distal third of the short
arm, whereas pg is located between the
mutants sh and wx. Many new pyd and
wd mutants and a few new yg mutants ap-
peared in these cultures. Although 69
mutants arising from newly broken chro-
mosomes 9 have been tested, they represent
only 7 distinct phenotypes because of the
repeated occurrence of the same mutations.
In the published linkage group of chromo-
some 9, 7 spontaneously arising mutants
have been placed in the short arm. The
symbols for these are : Dt, yg, C, sh, bz, bp,
and wx. The newly broken chromosomes
9 have given the 7 mutants pyd, wd, yg,
sm\, spl, bz, and pg. As has been stated
previously, the yg and bz mutants derived
from the broken chromosomes 9 are allelic
to the 2 mutants, yg and bz, that arose
spontaneously in genetic cultures.
An interesting type of chromosomal be-
havior has appeared in three of the broken-
chromosome cultures mentioned above. In
each culture, one of the broken chromo-
somes 9 is continually being lost from cells
during development. This loss is not due
to bridge formation or to ring chromosome
behavior, but appears to be caused by the
inability of the two halves of this chromo-
some to migrate to opposite poles in some
of the somatic anaphase figures. The rate
of loss varies widely from plant to plant.
Within a single plant, changes in rate
occur; this is made evident by the pres-
ence of distinct sectors each with its own
rate of loss. To date, only a cursory ex-
amination of the nature of this phenome-
non has been made; it warrants further
study. In addition, some of the mutants
appearing in these cultures are individu-
ally provocative. Several show variegation
characterized by a change from mutant to
normal-appearing tissues. For any one
plant, a distinctive or basic rate of change
is apparent, but this basic rate differs from
plant to plant. Sectors with changed rates
of variegation appear in all plants, espe-
cially in the later-appearing tissues. It is
significant that twin sectors accompany
many if not most of the alterations in rate;
this is expressed by the appearance of a
sector of tissue having a greatly increased
rate of variegation immediately adjacent
to a sector of tissue having a much reduced
rate of variegation.
Preliminary Studies of the Chromosomes
of the Fungus Neurospora crassa
During the fall of 1944, a period of ten
weeks was spent in the Biological Labora-
tories of Stanford University, where ge-
netic studies are being conducted with the
fungus 'Neurospora. The purpose of this
visit was to obtain some knowledge of
chromosomal and nuclear behavior in
Neurospora crassa. Although fungi have
assumed an important role as genetic ma-
terials, little has been done to coordinate
the genetic studies with a study of chromo-
somal conditions. As genetic investiga-
tions with fungi progress, the necessity
for correlative cytogenetic analyses will be-
come increasingly evident. It was a pleas-
ure to have the opportunity of examining
Neurospora in this laboratory. Progress
was greatly accelerated by the availability
of large numbers of stocks, both wild-type
and mutant, and by the generous and co-
operative support of the members of the
department.
The observations were confined to the
chromosomes and nuclei of the ascus.
They included observations of chromo-
some numbers, absolute and relative sizes
of the chromosomes, centromere positions,
internal organization of the chromosomes,
zygote formation, chromosome behavior in
the two meiotic mitoses and the equa-
tional mitosis which follows, and scattered
observations of several chromosomal trans-
locations. In the short time available, no
DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS
III
one of these topics could be adequately
considered. Nevertheless, this over-all sur-
vey has suggested that some fungi may be
adequate and, in several respects, superior
material for cytogenetic studies.
The haploid number of chromosomes in
Neurospora crassa is 7. Each chromosome
of the complement is distinguished by its
relative length, the position of its centro-
mere, and its internal organization. The
longest chromosome is approximately 2.7
times as long as the shortest. The second-
longest chromosome, chromosome 2, has a
nucleolus organizer located close to the end
of the short arm. The organizer region
functions to produce a nucleolus in a man-
ner similar to that observed in many other
organisms. Because of its location close to
the end of one arm of this chromosome, a
minute satellite is formed. Throughout the
various nuclear cycles, the relative lengths
of the chromosomes of the complement are
maintained. Therefore, absolute lengths
need be given only for the longest chromo-
some. In the third division in the ascus,
which is equational, this chromosome may
be only 1.5 microns long. At the full
meiotic prophase extension, it may be 15
microns long. Chromomere patterns were
observed at this latter stage; each chromo-
some appears to have its characteristic
pattern. Centromere positions were ade-
quately determined for the two longest
chromosomes, and approximate positions
were obtained for the other five chromo-
somes. Two heterochromatic segments
were observed and located adjacent to the
centromere, but the chromosome or chro-
mosomes carrying these heterochromatic
segments were not identified.
Fusion of two haploid nuclei to form
the zygote nucleus occurs in the very
young ascus. The two sets of chromo-
somes in this zygote nucleus then com-
mence the activities associated with meiosis.
The behavior of the chromosomes in the
early meiotic stages is of considerable theo-
retical interest. During meiosis in most
organisms, homologous associations com-
mence when the chromosomes are in a
very elongated state. In the Neurospora
strains most intensively studied, this occurs
when the chromosomes are greatly con-
tracted. Following nuclear fusion, the
chromosomes contributed by each nucleus
undergo what appears to be a typical pro-
phase contraction without visible evidence
of splitting, until, in some strains, the chro-
mosomes are almost as short as those of the
metaphase of the third division in the
ascus. In this highly contracted state, the
homologous chromosomes commence their
synaptic associations. Before the chromo-
somes have reached this state, fusion of the
nucleoli contributed by the two nuclei usu-
ally has occurred. Actual physical associa-
tion of the homologues usually begins at
one or both ends and continues along the
chromosomes. In many nuclei, synapsis is
completed for some pairs of chromosomes
before the members of the other pairs have
approached sufficiently close to each other
to commence actual contacts. It is not
clear from these studies whether the
approach of homologous chromosomes
toward each other is directed or whether
it follows from random movements of the
chromosomes in the nucleus. It is of con-
siderable theoretical interest to determine
the range of the synaptic force which
brings about homologous associations of
chromosomes. It is suspected that the
young asci of Neurospora might be readily
cultured. Because of the relatively large
volume of the nucleus and the small size of
the chromosomes in these asci, continuous
observations of the behavior of these chro-
mosomes in the living nuclei might be
possible.
Following the synaptic phase, the asso-
ciated homologous chromosomes begin to
elongate until, as stated above, the longest
112
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
chromosome may reach a length of 15
microns. Diplotene sets in rather suddenly
following the completion of elongation of
the synapsed chromosomes. The period
from diplotene to metaphase I is passed
through very rapidly. At diakinesis, typical
chiasmata may be observed leading to
rather orthodox, even though small, meta-
phase I bivalents. Although the nucleolus
becomes smaller during the prometaphase
stage, it is still present at metaphase. Chro-
mosome 2 remains attached to the nucleo-
lus by its organizer region. Anaphase I
appears to be essentially typical except for
the presence of the nucleolus. The nucleo-
lus may be dragged toward one pole or
stretched between the poles because the
nucleolus organizer of one or more chro-
matids of chromosome 2 still remains at-
tached to it. The nucleolus becomes de-
tached before telophase sets in. At telo-
phase I, and likewise at telophases II and
III, the centromere regions of all the chro-
mosomes form an aggregate that lies at
the apex of a distinct protrusion of the
nucleus (the beak). No true resting nu-
cleus is formed. Instead, the chromosomes
uncoil, the individual arms of each chro-
mosome extending into an elongated nu-
cleus. A new nucleolus is formed and
remains attached to the nucleolus organ-
izers of chromosome 2. Contraction of the
chromosomes initiates prophase II. This
continues until the two dyad chromosomes
are in the form of short, parallel rods, each
showing a conspicuous centromere region.
Metaphase and anaphase II are essentially
typical. At telophase II the centromere re-
gions are again aggregated at the apex
of the beak of the nucleus; the chromo-
somes uncoil and the two arms of each
chromosome extend into the nucleus as
individual strands. They remain in this
condition until the following prophase.
The extent of elongation of the chromo-
somes appears to be similar to that ob-
served in the meiotic prophase. In each
nucleus, a new nucleolus is formed at the
position of the nucleolus organizers of
chromosome 2. Prophase III is initiated by
contraction of the arms of the chromo-
somes. The metaphase and anaphase of
division III proceed as a typical equational
mitosis. The resting stage of nuclear or-
ganization follows telophase III. Shortly
after spore delimitation, a mitosis occurs
in each ascus. This is also a typical equa-
tional mitosis. In essential details, divi-
sions I and II are typically meiotic. Divi-
sion III is essentially a somatic mitosis, ex-
cept that the chromosomes retain their
identity as elongated strands from the telo-
phase of division II to the prophase of
division III. The time of effective splitting
of the chromosomes for this division is
of some theoretical interest.
Because many of the mutations in Neu-
rospora have appeared following X-ray
and ultraviolet irradiation, it was suspected
that various types of chromosomal translo-
cation might likewise have been induced
by these treatments. Three irradiation-in-
duced mutants, whose genetic behavior
suggested the presence of some chromo-
somal abnormality, were selected for ex-
amination. A translocation between two
nonhomologous chromosomes was found
in each case. Intensive studies of these
translocations were not undertaken, but
the preliminary observations have sug-
gested the usefulness of some transloca-
tions for attacking special problems.
DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS
113
POLYPLOIDY INVESTIGATIONS
H. E. Warmke, Harriet Davidson, and Germaine LeClerc
The work of this laboratory during the
past year has been largely devoted to a
study of spontaneous breakage of the Y
chromosome in Melandrium and to an
investigation of the number, position, and
mode of action of the male genes made
available for study by such breakage. The
beginnings of these studies were men-
tioned last year, at which time certain con-
tradictory observations were noted. Now
these apparent contradictions have been re-
solved, and the essential facts stand out
clearly.
These studies had their inception with
the discovery that the chief male-determin-
ing genes in Melandrium are located in a
single chromosome, the Y. This knowl-
edge, and the development of inbred
plants of the constitution 2A XXY, made
possible an analysis of maleness in Melan-
drium similar to the analysis of female-
ness made by Dobzhansky and Schultz,
Pipkin, and others in Drosophila; that is,
a determination of whether sex is con-
trolled by a single or by many male-deter-
mining cgenes, and something of the loca-
tion of this gene or genes in the Y chromo-
some. No similar investigation of maleness
has been made previously, on either plant
or animal material, so far as we are aware.
Breakage of the Y Chromosome in
2A XXY Plants
Cytological examination of plants with
broken Y chromosomes shows that frag-
ments are constant in size in all parts of
a given plant. This evidence, together
with the absence of sectorial chimeras,
indicates that the breakage does not occur
somatically, but is a meiotic phenomenon.
This inference was borne out by the dis-
covery of meiotic bridges, involving the
Y chromosome, apparently in sufficient
11
numbers to account for the observed inci-
dence of breaks.
These bridges, however, are not of the
usual type, which results from crossing
over in heterozygous inversions. The
bridges observed in 2A XXY individuals
of Melandrium appear to be restricted
largely to the second division, and are
not accompanied by acentric fragments.
Though the exact cause of bridge forma-
tion is not clear, it appears to be asso-
ciated with asynapsis of the Y chromo-
some. There is a close correlation between
the amount of asynapsis and of bridge for-
mation, and the number of broken Y
chromosomes recovered.
When the Y chromosome fails to syn-
apse with either of the X's, it behaves as
a univalent at meiosis. If it is not on the
spindle at the first division, and is by
itself, it may form a separate micronucleus;
or, if it happens to lie near one of the
poles, it may become incorporated in one
of the daughter nuclei. In this latter case
it splits longitudinally at the second divi-
sion, and the two chromatids separate
normally. If, however, the asynaptic Y
comes to lie on the first-division spindle,
it divides somewhat later than the other
chromosomes but nevertheless one whole
division cycle ahead of normal. The sister
halves of such a precociously dividing Y
chromosome may become incorporated in
the telophase nuclei of the first division;
or they may not have separated in time
to be so included, and in this case they
form small accessory nuclei. In either
event they behave abnormally at the second
division. Having already divided at the
first division, they do not divide again at
the second; instead they become laggards,
are not under the control of their centro-
meres, and are variously distributed on the
ii4
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
spindle during the second division. These
laggards, when caught by the spindle
forces, are stretched and, it is believed, form
the bridges which break and give rise to
the observed Y fragments.
Number, Location, and Mode of Action
of Male-Determining Genes
As the result of selfing 2A XXY plants,
the normal offspring — 2A XXY (male-
hermaphrodite), 2A XX (female), 2 A XY
(male), and 2AXYY (supermale) — are
obtained, and in addition two abnormal
hermaphrodite types appear. These are:
(1) a type in which the female structures
are highly developed, essentially as well
developed as in 2A XX females and with
normal stamens; and (2) the type de-
scribed last year, in which there is a
complete failure of stamen development
shortly after meiosis. These segregants are
easily distinguished from the normal types,
and cytological examination has shown
them to be associated with breaks in the
Y chromosome. The first type occurs
when the homologous (synaptic) arm of
the Y is deficient. Deficiencies may range
in size from a short terminal loss to one
which appears to include the entire or
nearly the entire homologous arm. It is
interesting that the degree of abnormality
is not proportional to the length of the
deficiency; once a small terminal segment
is lost, this phenotype appears, and larger
losses do not cause more pronounced
effects. One can be certain in such cases
that the homologous arm, and not the
differential arm, is the deficient one, by
the fact that deficiencies in the homologous
arm cause complete asynapsis of the Y
chromosome. The asynaptic Y, as noted
above, behaves as a univalent and is obvi-
ous in all figures. The segment that pairs
with the X thus appears to be terminal and
quite short; losses of as little as one-fourth
or one-fifth of the arm prevent synapsis.
The second abnormal type of segregant,
in which male development is arrested
short of completion, with resultant male
sterility, appears when there is breakage
of the differential arm of the Y chromo-
some, or combined differential and homol-
ogous breakage. As with deficiencies in
the homologous arm, a small terminal loss
in the differential arm is sufficient to evoke
the effect, and larger deficiencies do not
increase this effect. Plants that have lost
as little as one-fourth of the differential
arm are male sterile and indistinguishable
from plants that have lost most of both
arms. The Y, in extreme cases of this latter
type, may be represented at meiosis by
only a small spherical fragment, smaller in
diameter than the normal width of a chro-
mosome, and in somatic mitosis by a frag-
ment shorter than the smallest autosome.
These fragments, down to the smallest, re-
tain their centromeres and are carried
through the mitotic growth divisions to
every cell of the plant; only in rare cases
and with the very smallest fragments is
there evidence that somatic loss may occur.
The above observations are interpreted
as indicating that maleness in Melandrium
is not controlled by a single gene, or by an
extremely large number (as is the case with
femaleness in Drosophila). Specifically,
there appear to be at least three genes
or gene complexes in Melandrium that
operate in the development of maleness,
and more may well appear as more defi-
ciencies are discovered. First, there is one
near the centromere, and present in the
smallest observed fragments of the Y chro-
mosome, which initiates male development.
Plants which lack this proximal part of
the Y, as when it is lost somatically or is
not originally present (2A XX types), are
normal females; when this proximal seg-
ment is present stamens do develop, but
just past meiosis. Second, there is a gene
(or group of associated genes) near the
DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS
115
end of the differential arm of the Y that partial answer to this question is now
completes male development. When the possible, because of evidence obtained from
entire differential arm is present full male two newly derived types of plants. These
development results, but when as little as are plants with two sets of autosomes,
one-fifth of the arm is absent in terminal two X chromosomes, and two deficient
deficiencies, male development stops where Y chromosomes.
the male-initiating influence left off. Third, One of these types had two Y fragments
there appears to be a gene or region in comprising the proximal region (the re-
the terminal fourth of the homologous gion necessary for the initiation of male
arm of the Y which suppresses femaleness. structures), but none for male completion
Whether this is in the pairing segment or or female suppression. These two Y frag-
not is uncertain. When the entire Y ments, though unquestionably exceeding
chromosome is present (in addition to two a complete Y in total amount of chro-
X chromosomes), female structures are matin, did not combine to produce com-
poorly developed; in only a small per- plete maleness. These plants were pheno-
centage of the blossoms are ovaries suffl- typically indistinguishable from plants
ciently well developed to set capsules with with only a single proximal Y fragment;
seed. When the homologous arm is de- they were male sterile because of incom-
ficient — that is, when this particular region plete male development,
is removed — female development is com- A second and somewhat similar type has
plete, and every blossom produces seed- recently been synthesized; it has two Y
filled capsules. Thus experimental evi- fragments, each lacking the distal part of
dence indicates that this part of the the homologous arm, that is, the female-
Y chromosome acts when present as a suppressing region. These plants, though
positive suppressor of the female-determin- having two male-initiating segments and
ing regions in the X chromosomes. two male-completing segments, still are not
Basically it is important to know able to suppress femaleness. It would thus
whether the genes controlling these three appear that the genes governing these three
steps in male development are qualita- essential steps in male development are
tively different and control different reac- qualitatively distinct from one another in
tion systems, or are only quantitative stages their action and cannot be substituted one
in a common over-all process. At least a for another in a quantitative fashion.
THE GENE
M. Demerec and S. E. Luria
Ultraviolet Irradiation and Mutations
in Escherichia
Experiments with ultraviolets and X-rays
were undertaken as a part of the program
for studying the origin of bacterial resist-
ance to various agents (Year Book No.
43). In experiments conducted by M.
Demerec in collaboration with Miss M.
Crippen and Miss N. McCormick, strain
Br of Escherichia coli was treated with
ultraviolet radiation of wave length 2513 A,
and the rate of mutation from B to B/i —
that is, to resistance to bacteriophage Ti —
was observed.
Bacteria were plated on Petri dishes and
incubated. The controls begin to divide
after about 50 minutes, and the bacteria
treated with ultraviolet radiation after
about 2 hours. Once they start to divide,
the division periods are regular, one every
20 minutes. Therefore, if the number of
bacteria put on each plate is known, the
n6
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
number at subsequent periods can easily
be estimated. Phage sprayed as an aerosol
does not disturb the position of bacteria on
a plate. It will eliminate all sensitive in-
dividuals, and the resistant ones will re-
main to form colonies. The number of
mutations that has occurred during a cer-
tain interval can readily be determined by
finding the number of resistant colonies at
the beginning and at the end of the in-
terval. The advantage of this method of
applying phage is that the positions of bac-
teria are not changed. If mutation occurs
early in the interval, a mutant bacterium
will divide and produce several resistant
bacteria, but all of them will be close
together and will form only one colony.
In one set of experiments, the control
series showed a mutation rate of about
i to 2 X io-8, which is similar to that ob-
served previously in untreated material. In
a series treated with a dosage which kills
about 98 per cent of bacteria, the mutation
rate among bacteria immediately following
treatment was about 2 X io"6; among bac-
teria developing during the first 2 hours
of incubation (one cell generation after
treatment), the rate was about 4 X io"6;
among those developing during the in-
terval between 2 and 3 hours (2d and 3d
cell generation) after treatment, it was
about 2 X io"6; and among those develop-
ing during the interval between 3 and 4
hours (4th to 6th generation) after treat-
ment, it was about 3 X io-5. Results of
another series of experiments indicated
that the mutation rate reaches its normal
level after the bacteria have passed through
ten to twelve divisions.
These data show that the increased mu-
tation rate induced by ultraviolet irradia-
tion persists over a considerable period of
time, presumably through a number of
cell divisions. Experiments are now under
way to trace down the reasons for this
persisting effect.
Bacterial Resistance
Last year's report (Year Book No. 43,
pp. 109-110) contained a summary of work
on the genetic aspects of the origin of re-
sistance to penicillin of Staphylococcus bac-
teria. Results of that work indicate that
resistant bacteria occur as mutants inde-
pendently of the action of penicillin, that
resistance develops in steps, and that the
progress of the building up of resistance
is more rapid with each step.
In June 1945, an extensive research proj-
ect was started, dealing with the genetics
of acquired bacterial resistance to drugs
and other antibacterial agents. Dr. S. E.
Luria, who is on leave of absence from
Indiana University, is taking a leading
part in this research. In July and August
he was joined by Dr. E. Oakberg, Mrs. E.
Oakberg, Miss R. Arbogast, and Mrs. E.
Witkin.
The scope of this project is twofold. Its
aims are, on the one hand, to solve prac-
tical problems arising from bacterial resist-
ance to therapeutic agents, and, on the
other hand, to obtain fundamental knowl-
edge about bacterial genetics — in particu-
lar, about the mutational patterns of bac-
teria and the underlying physiological
mechanisms. The present approach to this
problem is based on the analysis of the
distribution of mutant individuals in uni-
parental populations made by Luria and
Delbriick in 1943. This analysis has been
applied successfully to the study of bac-
terial resistance to bacteriophages (Luria
and Delbriick, 1943; Demerec and Fano,
1944) and to penicillin (Demerec, 1945).
The present project includes work on
resistance to penicillin, sulfonamides, in-
organic salts, bacteriophages, and ultravio-
let radiation. The work on penicillin re-
sistance is directed toward clarification of
several complex aspects of this phenome-
non. Two types of penicillin resistance can
DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS
II7
occur. In the first type the cells acquire,
by mutation, tolerance to higher concentra-
tions of the antibiotic, without other evi-
dent physiological changes, as described by
Demerec. In the second type the organ-
isms secrete an inactivator of penicillin
(penicillinase), which protects them from
penicillin although they are individually
sensitive. The genetic basis of this second
type of resistance is still obscure. In the
course of the work, a rapid quantitative
test for penicillin resistance in staphy-
lococci has been devised for use in medical
laboratories.
The problem of acquired resistance to
sulfonamides has met with several difficul-
ties because of the peculiarities of the phe-
nomenon of bacteriostasis; in particular,
because of its complex dependence on the
initial number of bacterial cells present
in a culture. This and other aspects of
the problem are being methodically in-
vestigated.
Work on bacteriophage resistance is
being continued with an analysis of com-
plex mutations involving unusual changes
in the resistance pattern of bacteria. Study
of these mutations is being extended to an
analysis of the correlated changes in growth-
factor requirements. It is also planned
to attempt investigation of the cytological
aspects of the problem by nuclear stainings.
The occurrence of bacterial resistance to
ultraviolet radiation, discovered by Mrs.
Witkin last year (Year Book No. 43, pp.
iio-iii), is being further investigated.
Resistance seems to be due mainly to a
difference in the ability of bacteria to
initiate division after irradiation. Im-
proved techniques have been developed
for an analysis of this type of resistance,
and for investigation of the possibility that
mutations to ultraviolet resistance, besides
occurring spontaneously, are also induced
by the radiation itself.
Development of a High-Yielding Strain
of Penicillium
Beginning in September 1943, Mrs. San-
some and M. Demerec, in collaboration
with Dr. A. Hollaender, of the National
Institute of Health, Bethesda, Maryland,
started experiments to produce, by means
of X-ray and ultraviolet irradiations, strains
of Penicillium that would give high yields
of penicillin. Experiments were conducted
on a small scale until May 1944, when a
contract with the War Production Board
became effective and funds were made
available for additional equipment and
special assistants to carry on routine tests.
At that time Dr. H. E. Warmke joined
the group. The work was continued at
the Department until November 1944.
Since early in 1944, similar work, also
under contract with the War Production
Board, had been going on at the labora-
tories of Stanford University, the Univer-
sity of Minnesota, and the University of
Wisconsin.
Penicillin may be obtained from a cul-
ture medium when Penicillium is grown
on its surface, or when it is submerged
and aerated by shaking or by bubbling air
through the medium. At the time we
joined the project it was known that high
surface yielders may not be high yielders
in submerged cultures, and vice versa.
Manufacturing experience had indicated
also that submerged culturing is more
efficient and economical than surface cul-
turing. Therefore, the aim of the project
was to develop high-yielding strains with
submerged culturing. Since a considerable
amount of equipment is necessary for com-
plete tests of the yielding capacity of sub-
merged strains, it was decided to divide
the work so that the irradiation and the
preliminary rough screening tests to iso-
late possible high yielders would be carried
out at our laboratory; further tests for
!j8 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
yielding capacity would be made at the thought worth while to investigate the
University of Minnesota laboratory, where possibility that the pellets formed in shaker
large shaking machines were already avail- flasks originate from single spores, in
able; and the final tests would be carried which case the penicillin-producing capac-
on at the University of Wisconsin in 80- ity of single pellets could be tested directly,
gallon tanks. An experiment designed to test this possi-
For efficient planning of experiments, it bility revealed that pellets are formed from
was essential to acquire certain funda- a mixture of mycelia originating from
mental knowledge about the reaction of several spores.
Penicillium to X-rays. It is known that After experimentation with various tech-
the frequency of mutations is propor- niques, a standard procedure for making
tional to the dosage, and also that the rate tests was developed. Spores of Penicillium
of killing of the treated spores increases chrysogenum were X-rayed on agar slants
with the dosage. The most efficient dosage with 75,000 r-units. The irradiation was
for our experiments, therefore, was that given by Mr. L. D. Marinelli at the Me-
which would produce a sufficiently high morial Hospital in New York, at an in-
frequency of mutations and at the same tensity of 2420 r per minute. Treated
time leave enough survivors. spores were spread on the surface of potato-
In order to establish this dosage, the dextrose-agar plates; and immediately after
mutation rate and killing rate were deter- germination they were isolated into test
mined on spores treated with 25,000, 50,000, tubes containing 2 cc. of liquid culture me-
75,000, and 100,000 r-units. Spores were dium. These were put into the shaker ma-
treated both dry and in saline suspension, chine, which had a 4-inch horizontal stroke
Detailed results of these experiments are and operated at 250 strokes per minute,
published in last year's report (Year Book The tubes we used had an inside diameter
No. 43, p. 113). On the basis of these re- of 10 mm. and were no mm. long. The
suits, a dosage of 75,000 r-units was selected size of tubes and the amount of nutrient
for our experiments. in each tube is determined by the properties
Tests were also conducted to find out of the shaker. After 5 days of continuous
whether the mutation rate or the germina- shaking, a sample of the medium taken
tion rate of treated spores deteriorates when from each tube was diluted 100 times
they are stored in a refrigerator. Since it and assayed for penicillin content by the
was found that deterioration does not cup method, using Staphylococcus aureus
occur, it was possible to treat large batches (NRRL strain B313). Tubes showing a
of spores and to store them for subsequent high yield were saved and the fungus
use. growing in them was cultured; the re-
The majority of cultures obtained by ir- maining tubes were discarded. In this way
radiation of a high-yielding strain may be about 90 per cent of the cultures were
expected to have the same high-yielding eliminated as low or average yielders, and
capacity as the original strain. Conse- 10 per cent were saved as possible high
quently, the quick assay methods designed yielders and were shipped to the Division
to screen out low yielders are not applicable of Plant Pathology, University of Minne-
to these cultures. What is needed is a sota, St. Paul, for further tests. All to-
quick assay method which will pick out gether, 504 selected strains were sent to
the exceptional high yielders. In a search Minnesota. One among these was the
for such a quick screening method it was strain now known as X-1612, which yields
DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS
II9
about twice as much penicillin as the strain
1951.B25 from which it originated. This
new high-yielding strain is now used in
production of penicillin.
Aerosol Method for Chemical Treat-
ment of Drosophila melanogaster
In the course of extensive studies deal-
ing with the induction of mutations in
Drosophila by means of X-radiation, effi-
cient methods have been developed for
detecting induced as well as spontaneously
occurring mutations. Dr. H. J. Muller de-
veloped the most useful one, which is
designed to detect lethal mutations occur-
ring in the sperm of male flies. The great
advantage of this method is that one treat-
ment reaches a large number of mature
sperms, which may easily be tested for
induced changes.
For many reasons it would be desirable
to have a similar method for use in studies
that attempt to induce mutations by means
of various chemicals; specifically, a method
whereby the male gonads could be reached
without excessive injury to the flies and
without its being necessary for the chemi-
cals to pass through the digestive organs,
where they might undergo change.
It has been shown by Auerbach and
Robson (Nature, vol. 150, p. 80, 1944) that
mutations may be induced in Drosophila
sperm by exposing males to mustard oil
vapor. It appears likely that the vapor
enters the gonads through the numerous
tracheae present in these organs. Now, if
genetic changes in the sperm may be in-
duced by materials entering the gonads
through the tracheae, then it might be pos-
sible to affect sperm by using an aqueous
solution of any chemical, in the form of
an aerosol consisting of very fine droplets.
With the aid of experience obtained dur-
ing the past three years in a problem in-
vestigated at the Biological Laboratory, ap-
paratus was devised for exposing flies to
aerosols having droplets less than 1.5 mi-
crons in diameter.
During the summer of 1945, M. Dem-
erec, in cooperation with Wilton E.
Baty, of the staff of the Huntington High
School, and Zlata Demerec, carried on
extensive experiments with aqueous aero-
sols of thirty chemicals, including oxidiz-
ing, reducing, and wetting agents and
stains. In some cases brief exposure to an
aerosol killed the flies, and in other cases
the flies were not injured by long exposure.
Experiments are now under way to deter-
mine whether or not genetic changes were
produced in the sperm of treated males.
The utility of aerosols in attempts to
alter the genetic constitution of Drosophila
by chemical means depends on their mode
of entry and the disposal of the substances
in the fly. If aerosols enter as gases do,
through the tracheae, the chemicals con-
tained in them have almost immediate
access to the heavily tracheated gonads;
if not, they may be subject to the various
methods of detoxification provided by the
other portals of entry (alimentary, body
surface). Accordingly, it seemed advisable
to observe the fate of a group of dyes,
whose presence in the different organs of
flies exposed to aerosols made with these
dyes could easily be detected on dissection.
By using dyes known to be intravital
stains, the penetration into the cells could
be studied. Dr. Jack Schultz, of the Lan-
kenau Hospital Research Institute, Phila-
delphia, who was working at the Bio-
logical Laboratory, participated in these
studies and made most of the microscopic
observations.
The dyes used were the familiar toluidine
blue, neutral red, janus green, trypan blue,
among the vital stains. In addition, tests
were made with acriflavin, because of its
known effects on amphibian sperm; with
120
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
the chromatin stains crystal violet, methyl
green, and safranin O; and with the cyto-
plasmic and chromosomal counterstain fast
green. Adult wild-type flies were subjected
to aerosols containing maximal concentra-
tions of these dyes, and observed for vari-
ous periods following the beginning of
treatment. The atmosphere of the culture
bottle was renewed every half-hour, so that
concentration of the aerosol was main-
tained at an approximately constant level.
These experiments, then, gave a picture
of the course of entry of the dyes. Almost
invariably, the first region to show the dye
was the crop. Later, in the case of tolui-
dine blue, neutral red, and acriflavin, the
stain was visible in the cells of the midgut,
with characteristic differences in detail.
The staining was not uniform in all cells
of the gut, but bands of cells at intervals
were affected, indicating either a rhythm
in the release of the material from the
crop, or the existence of periodicities in the
receptivity of the cells to the dye. At later
stages, these dyes were observed in the
Malpighian tubules and — most interesting
— in the pigment granules of the testis
sheath and in cysts of spermatogonia
(moribund?). With other stains no ab-
sorption was evident; the dye was simply
passed along the lumen of the gut for ex-
cretion. The final picture in all treatments
was one of excretion of masses of pigment
from the lumen of the hindgut.
It appears, then, that intake occurs via
the proboscis and the alimentary tract. In-
deed, the proboscis itself was often seen to
be colored by the dye. Tests were made
to determine the intake when the flies were
prevented from feeding on the surface of
the culture bottles. Following a sugges-
tion of Dietrich Bodenstein, flies were
mounted, according to the technique de-
veloped by Chadwick for studying the fre-
quency of wing beat, by an attachment to
the dorsal surface of the abdomen which
left the fly suspended in air with its legs
and wings freely movable. Under these
circumstances staining was similar to that
observed in unmounted controls, although
less intense. A few trials were made with
flies mounted in the way described but
with their front legs cut of! to minimize
the amount of dye obtained by licking from
the surface of the body. The intake was
further decreased, but still observable. The
impression is therefore strong that chem-
icals are taken in by feeding on the film at
any exposed surface, and also by swallow-
ing aerosol.
The use of mutants that cannot fly pro-
vided evidence from a converse set of con-
ditions. Crawling on the surface of the
vessel, the mutant vestigial took in as
much dye as the wild-type, or possibly
more. A similar picture is presented by the
mutant Dichaete, in which an alteration
of the wing musculature extends the wings
at right angles to the body. One additional
point of interest appeared in the experi-
ments with Dichaete : with toluidine blue,
the crop rarely became inflated, the dye
appearing only in the crop duct. This was
not the case with other dyes — for example,
neutral red — and constitutes an interesting
problem on the physiology of the crop.
Whether there are other modes of in-
gress than by the alimentary tract was
tested by the use of the mutant probosci-
pedia. In this mutant, Dobzhansky and
Bridges showed, the proboscis is trans-
formed into a leglike structure, with the
opening to the buccal cavity completely
overgrown in the extreme cases. As might
be expected from the foregoing, those flies
with closed proboscises showed no intake
into the gut. They did, however, after
being exposed for some time, show some
concentration of dye near the tracheal end-
ings around the ovary, for example; pig-
ment could also be seen in the Malpighian
DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS
121
tubules. Since previous treatments had
shown that aerosols of mercuric chloride
kill wild-type flies, the lethal effect of this
aerosol on proboscipedia was tested. The
mutant flies were susceptible to approxi-
mately the same degree as the wild-type,
indicating that penetration of the mercuric
salt into the gut is not required for the
lethal effect. It would seem, therefore,
that in proboscipedia, and hence probably
also in wild-type, there is some intake, of
certain aerosols at least, through either the
tracheae or the thinner parts of the body
surface.
The occurrence of stained regions in the
testis is, of course, of major interest. An
attempt was made to study these more
closely by the use of the white-eyed mu-
tant, which lacks pigment in the testis
sheath and Malpighian tubules; because in
flies where pigment granules are present
they absorb the dye selectively. In the
white-eyed flies, the dye was eliminated
from the cells more rapidly, when it was
absorbed at all, and became evident as a
diffused staining of the cytoplasm. No
obvious changes in the frequency or loca-
tion of stained areas in the testis were seen.
Aerosols furnish a simple technique for
feeding adults with specific substances,
without the introduction of the complica-
tions involved in the use of culture media.
The presence of stained regions in the
testis indicates that aerosols of at least
some chemicals reach the germ cells. The
genetic study of treated flies will show
whether this technique is effective in pro-
ducing mutations.
CYTOGENETICS OF DROSOPHILA
Berwind P. Kaufmann and Helen Gay
Modification of X-Ray-Induced Chromo-
somal Rearrangements
Use of near infrared radiation. Although
radiation geneticists have outlined the
more general aspects of the process where-
by the activating energy of ionizing radia-
tion induces alterations within a chromo-
some that culminate in its eventual break-
age, the sequence of molecular changes by
which this end is reached remains un-
known. Since breakage may be followed
by recombination, it follows that the proc-
ess of disruption by X-rays involves a
loosening rather than a destruction of
those bonds that normally serve to main-
tain the linear continuity of the chromo-
some. The experimentally induced recom-
bination types show such patterns of re-
alignment of parts as presumably have
occurred in phylogeny, but the techniques
used have failed so far to furnish a clear
understanding of the methods by which
these changes have occurred in nature.
Certain aspects of the cycle of chromo-
some breakage and recombination have
been elucidated by altering the conditions,
such as rate and temperature, under which
the ionizing radiation was delivered. On
theoretical grounds it appears possible,
therefore, to modify the capacity for re-
attachment of the bonds loosened by the
ionizing radiation if supplementary treat-
ment is given prior to the time that new
combinations are established. Drosophila
appears to be especially well suited for
experiments of this type, since irradiated
chromosomes of the mature spermatozoa
do not combine to form new arrangements
until after the sperm has entered the egg
in the process of fertilization (Year Book
No. 39). Irradiated males can be kept for
several days before mating, so that long
intervals of time are available in which
efforts may be made to alter experimentally
the capacity of the regions of breakage to
recombine or to undergo restitution. Any
122
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
factor promoting restitution prior to the
time of recombination should decrease the
number of potential breaks, and thereby
increase the frequency with which sperms
transmit in fertilization an unaltered group
of chromosomes. Supplementary treat-
ment, if it were effective in disrupting the
chromosome and "sealing" the broken end,
would likewise reduce the proportion of
detectable alterations.
Proceeding on these assumptions, a series
of experiments were initiated (Year Books
Nos. 41, 42) to measure the effects of the
ultraviolet and near infrared parts of the
spectrum on X-ray-induced chromosomal
rearrangements. The projects were carried
out in cooperation with Dr. Alexander
Hollaender, of the National Institute of
Health, who designed the apparatus used
for treating the flies. The method of bio-
logical assay involved cytological analysis
of the salivary-gland chromosomes of the
Fi larval progeny of irradiated fathers
mated with virgin females of the same
(Oregon-R) stock of D. melanogaster.
In the first experiments (Year Book No.
41) 4000 roentgens of X-rays were given in
when intercalated between the two frac-
tions of X-ray treatment, it was effective
in reducing the frequency of chromosomal
rearrangements in proportion to the time
of treatment. Subsequent experiments have
shown that the reduction with time is to
be attributed to an accelerating effect of
the near infrared radiation on those proc-
esses that make available for copulation
sperm that was not mature at the time of
X-ray treatment.
Post-treatment with near infrared does
not seem to be effective, therefore, in elimi-
nating or modifying the potential breaks
induced by X-rays. But a repetition of the
fractionation experiment so designed as to
test only spermatozoa that were mature
at the time of treatment gave a frequency
of rearrangement in excess of that observed
in the X-ray controls. Inasmuch as frac-
tionation of the X-ray dose involves pre-
treatment as well as post-treatment with
near infrared, a series of tests was run in
which exposure to near infrared preceded
4000 roentgens of X-rays. The combined
data from 5 series of experiments are pre-
sented in the accompanying table.
Frequency of chromosome breakage
Type of treatment
Total
sperms
tested
No. with
rearrange-
ments
Per cent sperm
showing changes
No. of
breaks
observed
Breaks
per 100
sperms
Mean no. of breaks
Near infrared fol-
lowed by 4000 r
4000 r alone
721
549
312
169
43.27 ± 1.84
30.78 ± 1.97
850
435
117.89
79.23
2.72 ± 0.064
2.57 ± 0.075
Diff. %/S. E....
12.49/2.70 = 4.6 0.15/0.098 = 1.5
two equal fractions at 16-day intervals, and
in the intervening period the flies were ex-
posed to near infrared radiation for either
72, 144, or 216 hours. The near infrared
radiation when used alone produced no
detectable chromosomal changes in a sam-
ple of 100 pairs of glands examined; but
There seems to be little question, from
these data, that pre-treatment with near in-
frared is a method of increasing the yield
of detectable chromosomal alterations in
Drosophila. The frequency of rearrange-
ment and that of breaks per total sperm
tested are of the same order of magnitude
DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS
123
as those induced in earlier experiments by
a dose of 5000 roentgens of X-rays. But
when a comparison is made, using the x2
test, of the proportions of simple and com-
plex rearrangements, they resemble a 5000-r
treatment less than they do one of 4000 r.
Thus the effect of the exposure of male
flies to near infrared seems to be to sensi-
tize the chromosomes of the sperm so that
the number of potential breaks induced
by 4000 r of X-rays, and the consequent op-
portunities for recombination, are increased
without altering the proportions of 2-break,
3-break, and multiple-break combinations
characteristic of a 4000-r treatment. A con-
sideration of the distribution of the in-
duced breaks indicates, moreover, that the
increased yield of chromosomal aberrations
is not due to selective sensitization of any
one chromosome or part thereof.
Breaks that are detectable by analysis of
salivary-gland chromosomes represent but
a residue of the larger number of potential
breaks induced by the X-rays, since some
patterns of recombination lead to unbal-
anced, inviable nuclei in subsequent gen-
erations. An effective measure of these
"dominant lethals" may be obtained by
determining the proportion of individuals
that die in embryonic stages. Since only
about 15 per cent of the eggs hatched fol-
lowing an X-ray dose of 4000 r, a dose of
2000 r was used following exposure of the
males to near infrared rays. The accom-
panying table presents data of all egg
counts.
Hatchability of eggs
Type of treatment
Total
eggs
deposited
Unhatched
36 hrs.
later
Per cent
failing
to hatch
None (controls) ....
Near infrared alone
(48 hrs.)
2000 r alone
Near infrared (48
hrs.) + 2000 r. . .
7,047
14,272
9,214
9,562
478
1,901
4,480
5,096
6.8
13.2
48.6
53.3
Near infrared radiation of sperm, al-
though inducing no appreciable number
of chromosomal rearrangements (none
among 100 sperms tested), slightly increases
the percentage, in comparison with the
controls, of eggs that fail to hatch. The
end result is such as might be obtained if
a small percentage of the sperm were in-
activated and, although penetrating the
egg, were unable to ensure fertilization.
We have not sectioned a series of eggs to
determine whether those that fail to hatch
have been fertilized, but inactivation of
some spermatozoa does not account for
the augmented break frequency obtained
following the combined treatment, nor
does differential inactivation seem prob-
able when we recall that adult male flies
exposed to near infrared rays for as long
as 216 hours show no apparent physiologi-
cal disturbances or reduction in viability.
Another possible mode of action of near
infrared radiation is the rearrangement of
certain molecular configurations within the
chromosome so that the bonds maintain-
ing the linear continuity of the chromo-
some are uncoupled more readily by the
ionizing radiation than if such pre-treat-
ment had not been given. Near infrared
radiation does increase the body tempera-
ture of Drosophila during the period of
exposure. By means of a thermocouple de-
signed by Dr. J. Gordon Carlson, working
with Dr. Hollaender at the National Insti-
tute of Health, it has been determined that
the temperature of the fly during exposure
is elevated about y° C. The flies used in
the studies here reported attained tempera-
tures of at least 29 to 300 C, but survived
for as long as 9 days without loss of fertil-
ity. This is made possible by the design of
the treatment chamber, which is fitted
within a coil that carries circulating water
(temperature, 190 C.) and prevents ex-
cessive accumulation of heat in the cul-
ture medium or enclosed air.
124
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
Since near infrared radiation provides
a method that essentially increases the tem-
perature range within which normal viabil-
ity of Drosophila is maintained, its effect
on irradiated chromosomes at the time
of their recombination has also been meas-
ured. Females inseminated by sperm from
X-rayed males were exposed to the beam
of near infrared rays during oviposition.
The eggs deposited by these females com-
pleted the early cleavage stages while ex-
posed to the radiation, and gave a signifi-
cantly higher frequency of chromosomal
rearrangements than those held at i8° C.
recommend its use in experiments de-
signed to alter the frequency of X-ray-
induced breakage (see Year Book No. 41).
Accordingly, males of the Oregon-R stock
of D. melanogaster were given 4000 r of
X-rays and exposed shortly thereafter to
ultraviolet radiation of wave length 2537 A
for 10 minutes. To facilitate penetration
of the ultraviolet rays, the abdomens of the
flies were flattened between quartz plates so
as to bring the testes closer to the ventral
body surface. Frequencies of chromosomal
breakage are presented in the accompany-
ing table.
Frequency of chromosome breakage
Treatment
(X-ray, 4000 r; 2537 A,
10 mins. exposure)
Ultraviolet alone
X-ray alone
X-ray + ultraviolet:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(0
Total X-ray + ultraviolet
Total no.
No. with
sperm
rearrange-
tested
ments
146
128
38
55
8
51
8
49
12
44
12
39
11
51
16
289
67
Per cent sperm
showing changes
No. of
Breaks
breaks
per 100
detected
sperm
108
84.4
20
36.4
27
52.9
25
51.0
33
75.0
24
61.5
39
76.5
168
58.2
Mean no. of
breaks
29.7 ± 4.04
14.5 db 4.75
15.7 ± 5.09
24.5 db 6.14
27.3 ± 6.72
28.2 ± 7.21
31.4 db 6.50
23.2 ± 2.48
2.84 ± 0.19
2.51 db0.13
during the same period. (See Year Book
No. 42.) These results suggest that the
higher temperature accelerates those move-
ments of the chromosomes that facilitate
chromosome recombination. In this con-
nection it is interesting to note that eggs
exposed to a temperature of 28 ° C. show
values in frequency of recombination
and in the complexity of the resulting
rearrangements intermediate between the
180 C. and the near infrared samples.
Effect of ultraviolet radiation of wave
length 253J A. The selective absorption
of monochromatic ultraviolet radiation by
various components of the chromosome
The considerable variability in the fre-
quency of chromosomal alterations ob-
tained following the combined treatment
is presumably attributable to varying de-
grees of penetration of the ultraviolet
quanta. Nevertheless, when the total data
are compared with those for the X-ray
controls, the difference in the percentages
of altered sperms is 1.9 times its standard
error, and therefore at the threshold of
significance. In respect to the proportions
of various types of rearrangement observed,
the results of the combined-treatment
series (4000 r + 2537 A) approximate more
closely those of a 3000-r X-ray treatment
DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS
125
than those of a 4000-r treatment alone
(P = ca. 0.95 when obtained from x2)-
Despite our inability to determine with
any degree of precision the amount of
energy reaching the mature spermatozoa
of the testes, we feel that the data here
presented indicate that ultraviolet radia-
tion that penetrates spermatozoa previ-
ously exposed to ionizing radiation may
so affect the chromosomes as to produce
fewer chromosomal rearrangements than
would have been obtained if ultraviolet
radiation had not been used.
Whether the ultraviolet alters the chro-
mosomes by inhibiting recombination or
by increasing the amount of restitution
may possibly be determined by measuring
the frequency of dominant lethals. Counts
of numbers of eggs that fail to hatch have
been made for both the ultraviolet and
X-ray controls, but data from the com-
bined treatments are at present too meager
to present a satisfactory answer to the
problem.
Ultraviolet of wave length 2537 A is
absorbed primarily by nucleic acids, but
whether the action here reported may
be attributed to absorption by the ribose
nucleic acid — as Swanson (Genetics, vol.
27, 1942) suggests to explain the effects of
wave length 2537 A on X-ray-induced
breaks in the pollen-tube chromosomes of
Tradescantia — or by the desoxyribose nu-
cleic acid or other components of the chro-
mosome remains to be determined. The
spermatozoon of Drosophila presumably
has a high content of the desoxyribose type,
and, according to Schultz, is not affected
by ribonucleose under conditions that per-
mit digestion of the matrix of the salivary-
gland chromosomes. Answers to problems
of this type can possibly be given by an
extended study of the comparative effects
of ultraviolet radiation of different wave
lengths.
Spontaneous Mutation Rate in
Drosophila
Radiation genetics has given many
clues, if not an answer, to the problem
of the nature of the mutation process.
Further information may be gained by
analysis of various factors influencing spon-
taneous mutation rates. Ten years ago
N. W. Timofeeff-Ressovsky presented data
showing that the percentage of mutations
occurring in the chromosomes of Dro-
sophila varies with the age of the sperma-
tozoon. We have carried out similar ex-
periments during the past year with the
assistance of Miss Katherine Tulloch and
Mr. B. N. Kaufmann. The frequency of
lethal mutation in the X chromosome of
the Swedish-b stock of D. melanogaster
was determined by the standard C1B
method. All stocks and experimental ma-
terials were kept at 22 ° C. Males were
selected within a few hours of their
emergence, stored for either 1 day, 16 days,
or 32 days, and then placed for 1 day with
virgin females of the ClB stock. The
sperm from males 1-2 days after emer-
gence gave 5 lethals out of 3545 sperms
tested (0.141 ± 0.063 per cent) ; that from
males 16-17 days after emergence, 11
lethals out of 3471 (0.317 ± 0.095 Per
cent) ; and that from males 32-33 days
after emergence, 30 lethals out of 5248
(0.5716 ± 0.104). The 1-2-day and the
32-33-day samples are significantly dif-
ferent; together with the 16-17-day ma-
terial they indicate a relation of mutation
to passage of time that is essentially a
linear proportionality. These data were
obtained by testing mature sperms (which
presumably are neither resorbed nor ejacu-
lated while the males are stored), so that
we may be measuring mutation rate in
nondividing chromosomes. Other experi-
ments bearing on this problem are now in
progress.
126
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
Chromosome Breakage and
Recombination
In the analysis of the chromosome re-
arrangements obtained in the experiments
outlined in the preceding pages, the posi-
tions of a considerable number of breaks
have been determined. For the X chromo-
some more than 1400 points of breakage
have been localized with respect to the
lettered subdivisions of Bridges' salivary-
gland-chromosome map. Details concern-
ing the distribution of the greater part
of this total were presented in Year Book
No. 43. Analysis of the accumulated data
has been continued, with a view to deter-
mining the patterns of recombination be-
tween these breaks and those in other
chromosomes. Data accumulated in an
earlier study (Year Book No. 37) had led
to the conclusion that breaks are distrib-
uted among the chromosomes essentially
at random (assumedly in accordance with
the random distribution of the ionizing
radiation), but that the opportunity for
recombination at any region of potential
breakage depends on spatial relations
that favor exchange within a chromosome
limb (intrabrachial inversion) as com-
pared with exchange between limbs (inter-
brachial inversion and reciprocal translo-
cation). With the large body of data now
available we are in a better position to
ascertain whether the breaks determined
by analysis of salivary-gland chromosomes
represent a random sample of the potential
breaks originally induced.
The breaks involved in interchanges
with the X chromosome are scattered
among the autosomes essentially at ran-
dom with respect to length either of
mitotic chromosomes or of salivary-gland
chromosomes. The proportion of re-
arrangements restricted to the X chromo-
some is larger, however, as compared with
exchanges between the X chromosome and
the autosomes, than would be expected if
recombination were at random. Moreover,
the ratio of number of X-chromosome in-
versions to number of translocations be-
tween the X and the autosomes differs
markedly according to whether hetero-
chromatic or euchromatic regions are in-
volved. The analysis — which up to the
present has included only two-break cases,
and requires further confirmation — sug-
gests that differences may exist in the time,
with respect to the movement of the chro-
mosomes, at which potential breaks in
euchromatin and heterochromatin first be-
come available for the initiation of re-
combination.
The pattern of recombination within the
chromosome may be measured by deter-
mining frequencies of inversions of differ-
ent lengths. Considered in terms of units
as large as the division, the frequencies
depart only slightly from values expected
if recombination were at random (P from
X2 is almost 0.03) . When one break occurs
in the proximal heterochromatic region
(division 20), the separated ends appar-
ently may combine with equal facility with
any other available broken ends within
divisions 1 to 19. Inverted sections re-
stricted to these divisions can be meas-
ured in terms of numbers of subdivisions
encompassed. Plotted against values ex-
pected on random distribution, a P of
ca. 0.005 1S obtained, which suggests that
the data do not adequately fit this hypoth-
esis. Of the various possible lengths (rang-
ing from 0 to 113 subdivisions), the highest
frequencies were found in the inversions
of 12 or 13, of 25 or 26, and of 42 or 43 sub-
divisions in length. This suggests that
a pattern of coiling may exist within
the X chromosome at the time of recom-
bination that increases the chances of re-
union of parts separated by the distance
of one full turn. This increase is slight,
however, since an inversion was observed
DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS
I27
in which both breaks occurred in the
same subdivision, another as long as 11 1
subdivisions, and others of almost all inter-
mediate lengths.
The extensive data of the present study
enable us, therefore, to interpret more ade-
quately the conclusions reached in earlier
work. It is now clear that patterns of break
distribution and recombination that were
obscured by analysis in terms of the divi-
sions of the salivary-gland chromosome
are revealed when smaller units such as
the subdivisions are considered. By plot-
ting the distribution along the X chromo-
some of breaks involved in exchanges
with other breaks in either proximal or
intercalary heterochromatic regions, it was
found that the broken ends produced by
a break in heterochromatin may combine
freely with all other regions within the
chromosome, either euchromatic or hetero-
chromatic. These conditions suggest that
the breaks identified by analysis of salivary-
gland chromosomes represent in their dis-
tribution essentially a random sample of
the potential breaks originally induced.
For a more complete understanding of the
various factors involved in recombination,
studies paralleling those here summarized
will be required for the limbs of the vari-
ous autosomes.
GENETIC STRUCTURE OF NATURAL POPULATIONS
Th. Dobzhansky, Columbia University, New Yor\
Evolutionary changes in nature are
mostly too slow to be perceived within a
human lifetime. This fact was recognized
by pioneer evolutionists, and most biolo-
gists took it for granted until recently.
Darwin pointed out that the transforma-
tions brought about in domestic animals
and plants by artificial selection are rela-
tively rapid, but he conceded that the
process of evolution in the wild is some-
thing to be inferred rather than observed.
This concession need no longer be made.
Under some conditions rapid changes do
occur in nature. Recent work on micro-
organisms shows that the long-recognized
phenomena of bacterial adaptation resolve
into the same mutational and selectional
components that bring about evolutionary
changes in other organisms. Entomologists
have recorded the occurrence of genetic
changes in some insect pests; these changes
adjust the insects to the environment as
altered by man. Finally, some wild species
have been shown to undergo rapid genetic
changes, which are geared to the annual
climatic cycle, and which represent adap-
tive responses to seasonal alterations in the
milieu. The results of studies on a case of
this last category have been mentioned in
Year Books Nos. 39, 40, and 43, and they
are reviewed below jointly with new data.
This case has the unique advantage that
the changes known to take place in nature
can be reproduced in part in laboratory
experiments.
Seasonal Changes in the Genetic
Composition of Populations
Populations of the fly Drosophila pseudo-
obscura which inhabit the Andreas Can-
yon, Pinon Flats, and Keen Camp localities
on Mount San Jacinto, California, have
been sampled repeatedly during four con-
secutive breeding seasons (1939-1942).
Three types of third chromosome — called
Standard, Chiricahua, and Arrowhead —
are found commonly, and two further
types rarely, in all the populations. These
chromosomal types differ in inversions of
blocks of genes. The carriers of the differ-
ent types interbreed at random; inversion
128
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
homozygotes and heterozygotes occur in
nature. The relative frequencies of the
chromosomal types are different in the
three populations. The most important
fact for us, however, is that these fre-
quencies change from month to month,
the changes being cyclic. The data for the
four years of observation at Pifion Flats
are summarized in the accompanying table.
Frequencies (in per cent) of the three
common chromosomal types in the
Pinon Flats population
Month
a)
U3
u
o
T3
a;
o
u
u
<
w
1)
B
O
05
O TJ
o .5
. X
o <w
March
47.2
28.6
18.1
496
April
46.2
23.6
24.9
449
May
33.6"
31.3
29.0
642
June
29.2
35.9
30.6
630
July-August
42.3
27.3
26.3
388
September
47.3
26.6
22.2
338
October
54.1
16.6
25.3
150
November- December .
41.7
25.0
27.8
180
It can be seen that Standard chromo-
somes are frequent during autumn and
winter, become less prevalent in spring,
reach a minimum in June, and increase in
frequency during the summer. Chiricahua
chromosomes follow a path opposite to
that of Standard. The behavior of Arrow-
head is erratic. The population at Andreas
Canyon undergoes changes qualitatively
similar to those at Pinon Flats. No sea-
sonal changes have been observed at Keen
Camp, although this locality is only about
15 miles distant from Pinon and from
Andreas.
As indicated in Year Books Nos. 40 and
43, these data suggest that, in the Pinon
Flats and Andreas Canyon populations,
the flies with Standard chromosomes are
better adapted to the summer environment
than flies with Chiricahua chromosomes,
whereas in spring the conditions are re-
versed. Accordingly, natural selection aug-
ments the frequency of Standard chromo-
somes in summer, and of Chiricahua
chromosomes in spring. In autumn and
winter, the three chromosomal types are
equivalent.
The data given in the table above show
that the frequency of Standard chromo-
somes decreases by about one-third be-
tween March-April and June, and in-
creases by about one-half between June
and August-September. Although Dro-
sophila pseudoobscura breeds rapidly for an
insect, the time intervals just indicated can
correspond to hardly more than three gen-
erations. The intensity of natural selection
necessary to bring about changes so great
in so short a time must be very high; i.e.,
the survival or reproduction rates of the
carriers of the different chromosomal types
must be quite different. The selection co-
efficients involved here must be of a higher
order of magnitude than those customarily
assumed by theorists to be' effective in
bringing about evolutionary changes in
nature. This is very fortunate indeed, be-
cause high selection differentials may be
verified in experiments, whereas the small
ones are not detectable experimentally; this
latter circumstance has been, ever since
the time of Darwin, the weakest point of
the theory of natural selection.
Natural Selection in Artificial
Populations
Artificial populations with different pro-
portions of flies having the three chromo-
somal types mentioned above have been
kept in the "population cages" described
briefly in Year Book No. 43. Suffice it to
state here that the populations in such
cages grow rapidly to a maximum size
DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS
129
compatible with the amount of food sup-
plied, and remain more or less constant in
numbers thereafter. The numbers of eggs
deposited in a cage, however, are very
much greater than the numbers that can
develop to adult insects. Hence, the com-
petition for survival is keen in the popu-
lation cages. If the original population
consists of two or more genetic types
with unequal adaptive values, the strong
types increase, and the weak ones dwindle
in numbers. Nineteen experiments with
population cages have been completed up
to the present, all with flies whose an-
cestors were collected at Pinon Flats, Cali-
fornia. In some experiments the composi-
tion of the natural population of Pinon
Flats has been artificially reproduced, as
far as relative proportions of the chromo-
somal types are concerned.
The data summarized in the next table
(p. 130) are representative of all those ex-
periments carried at constant or fluctuating
temperatures above 210 C. Population cage
no. 18 was started on October 23, 1944,
with an initial population of about 20 per
cent Standard, 36 per cent Chiricahua, and
44 per cent Arrowhead chromosomes. By
late February of 1945, the proportion of
Standard had approximately doubled, and
that of Chiricahua had been reduced to
around 25 per cent. Cage no. 19 was
started on November 15, 1944, with about
38 per cent Standard, 62 per cent Chirica-
hua, and no Arrowhead chromosomes. By
late February of 1945, the proportions of
Standard and Chiricahua chromosomes
had been approximately reversed. If the
initial mixture contains Standard and
Arrowhead, but no Chiricahua, Arrow-
head is displaced by Standard. But in a
mixture of Arrowhead and Chiricahua
without Standard, Arrowhead displaces
Chiricahua.
These changes observed in population
cages are obviously analogous to those
taking place in the natural population of
Pinon Flats in summer — Standard displac-
ing Chiricahua chromosomes, and Arrow-
head more or less holding their own. Pre-
cisely what physiological properties of flies
with Standard chromosomes make them
superior to those with Chiricahua chro-
mosomes in population cages kept at tem-
peratures above 21 ° C. is not known; nor
is it known whether or not these same
properties are responsible for the differ-
ential survival of the flies in the natural
populations. It may be regarded as an
established fact, however, that the carriers
of Standard, Arrowhead, and Chiricahua
chromosomal types possess sharply differ-
ent adaptive values in at least some en-
vironments. The relative frequencies of
these types in populations are governed by
natural selection.
Quite different is the outcome of experi-
ments carried on at low temperatures. The
relative frequencies of the chromosomal
types remain constant, within the limits
of experimental errors, in population cages
kept at 16.50 C. Therefore, the adaptive
values of the different chromosomal types
seem to be approximately alike at 16.50 C,
although, as we have seen, they are sharply
different at higher temperatures. This re-
sult agrees very well with the known be-
havior of the natural populations of Pinon
Flats and Andreas Canyon, where the
chromosomal types remain nearly constant
in frequency during autumn and winter,
when the temperatures in the environment
of the flies are low. During spring the
natural populations undergo a different
type of change; the frequencies of Chirica-
hua chromosomes increase and those of
Standard decrease. Attempts to reproduce
these changes in population cages have
been unsuccessful so far. In all the experi-
ments at the low temperature the relative
frequencies of the chromosomal types re-
mained constant, whereas at high tempera-
12
130
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
Changes observed in artificial populations kept at fluctuating temperatures
AVERAGING ABOUT 26° C. The FIGURES SHOW THE FREQUENCIES, IN PER CENT,
OF THE CHROMOSOMAL TYPES
Time
Experiment 18
Standard Chiricahua
Arrowhead
Experiment 19
Standard
Chiricahua
October 23, 1944....
Mid-November 1944
Mid- December 1944.
Mid-January 1945 . .
Late February 1945.
Late March 1945 .. .
Late April 1945
Early June 1945....
19.9
33.3
37.7
39.3
44.3
42.0
46.7
56.4
36.5
39.3
33.7
30.7
25.7
19.0
23.0
16.3
43.6
27.3
28.7
30.0
30.0
39.0
30.3
27.3
38.3
53.0
63.3
60.3
65.3
65.3
70.4
61.7
47.0
36.7
39.7
34.7
34.7
29.6
tures the frequencies of Standard rose and
those of Chiricahua declined. This oc-
curred regardless of whether the tempera-
tures were constant or fluctuating, whether
the cages were exposed to light or kept in
the dark, whether fresh food was intro-
duced into the cages at short or at long
intervals.
The mode of action of natural selection
on the chromosomal types is interesting.
A mathematical analysis of the data has
been made by Professor Sewall Wright, of
Chicago. He found that, at high tempera-
tures, the adaptive value of Standard/
Chiricahua heterozygotes is highest, that
of Standard homozygotes lower, and that
of Chiricahua homozygotes lowest. Such
being the case, Standard chromosomes can
never replace Chiricahua completely in any
population. The end result of the selection
process is the establishment of an equilib-
rium between Standard and Chiricahua
chromosome types. The relative frequen-
cies of heterozygotes and homozygotes at
equilibrium are such that the population as
a whole attains the optimal adaptive level.
Thus, if only Standard and Chiricahua
chromosomes are present, the equilibrium
is established when 65-70 per cent of the
chromosomes are Standard and 30-35 per
cent Chiricahua. It follows that, at high
temperatures, in population cages with
initial mixtures containing more than 70
per cent Standard and less than 30 per cent
Chiricahua chromosomes, the frequencies
of Standard must diminish, and those of
Chiricahua must rise. This expectation
must be tested experimentally.
The Genetic Basis of the Selective
Differentials
Two hypotheses may be put forward
concerning the differences in adaptive
value observed between carriers of the
different types of third chromosome. First,
the gene arrangement in a chromosome
may influence the properties of the organ-
ism through position effects. Inversions of
blocks of genes change the gene arrange-
ment in the chromosome, and hence may
change the properties of the body. Second,
a chromosomal type may become asso-
ciated, in a given population, with a cer-
tain constellation of genes. The adaptive
properties of a chromosomal type would,
then, be determined by the genie variants
which it happens to carry.
According to the first hypothesis, the
chromosomes of a given type must have
similar adaptive properties wherever found.
DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS
131
If the second hypothesis is correct, chro-
mosomes of the same type found in popu-
lations of different geographic origin may
possess different properties. Since all the
experiments so far have been done with
chromosomes derived from the Pifion
Flats population, neither hypothesis can
be regarded as established. The second
hypothesis is favored, however, by the
fact that no cyclic seasonal changes in the
frequencies of the chromosomal types are
known at Keen Camp. The population of
this locality contains the same chromo-
somal types as those found at Pinon Flats
and Andreas Canyon, where changes do
occur. Furthermore, chromosomes with
different gene contents are known to be
present in these populations. The experi-
ments to be reported below show how
great is the variety of these chromosomes.
Many chromosomes found in natural
populations carry recessive genes which,
when homozygous, reduce the viability of
their carriers. The reduction may vary
from a barely perceptible diminution of
the viability to complete lethality. Further-
more, the effects of a given chromosome
on viability are often modified very greatly
by the environment (see Year Book No.
41). For example, individuals homozygous
for the second chromosome no. 1015 from
Andreas Canyon have a viability only
slightly below normal at 16.5 ° C, but they
are semilethal at 21 °, and completely
lethal at 25.5 °. Here, then, is a good
analogy with the behavior of the different
types of third chromosome; for, as we
know, flies with the Standard gene ar-
rangement have a higher adaptive value
than those with the Chiricahua arrange-
ment in summer, a lower value in spring,
and an equivalent one in winter. On the
other hand, homozygotes for the second
chromosome no. 975 from Andreas Can-
yon, or for no. 863 from Pinon Flats, are
normally viable at all three temperatures.
By means of appropriate crosses, flies
were obtained which carried (were hetero-
zygous for) both second chromosomes
Andreas 1015 and Pinon 863. Such flies
may transmit to their offspring either the
chromosome Andreas 1015, or Pinon 863,
or chromosomes compounded from seg-
ments of these two by crossing over.
Ninety-six males were taken at random
from among the offspring of females of
the genetic constitution just indicated. The
second chromosomes of these males were
examined for their effects on the viability
of homozygotes. When the experiment
was done at a temperature of 25.5 ° C,
35 out of the 96 chromosomes tested proved
to be lethal when homozygous. These
chromosomes seem to resemble the an-
cestral Andreas 1015. Only 8 chromosomes
gave normally viable homozygotes, resem-
bling the ancestral Pinon 863. Of the re-
mainder, 21 chromosomes were extreme
semilethals, 13 were less extreme semi-
lethals, and 9 gave subnormal viabilities
outside the semilethal range. The 56 chro-
mosomes that behaved as complete lethals
at 25.5 ° were retested at 16.50 C. In this
experiment, 47 chromosomes gave almost
normally viable homozygotes. Their be-
havior is thus identical with that of An-
dreas 1015. Three chromosomes, however,
remained lethal, and 6 chromosomes gave
distinctly subnormal viabilities at the low
temperature.
A great variety of chromosomal types
with quite different reaction norms, there-
fore, can be produced by crossing over
between two chromosomes obtained from
natural populations. An even more strik-
ing example of this phenomenon is offered
by the cross involving the second chromo-
somes Andreas 975 and Pinon 863. As
was stated above, both of these chromo-
somes give homozygotes that are normally
viable at the three temperatures tried. Yet,
among 22 crossover chromosomes tested,
132
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
3 chromosomes proved to be lethal and 3
others semilethal at 25.5 ° C. It follows
that chromosomes which are lethal when
homozygous can be produced through re-
combination of the genes of chromosomes
which normally give viable homozygotes.
Such lethals, obtained by recombination,
may be called "synthetic lethals."
The variety of chromosomes with dif-
ferent gene contents actually available and
potentially possible in natural populations
is evidently enormous. Even if only a few
chromosomes were available to begin with,
crossing over would constantly supply new
gene combinations. Some of these gene
combinations may be favorable in certain
environments, other combinations in other
environments, and still others may be un-
favorable. Although it is obviously ad-
vantageous to the organism to have the
favorable gene combinations retained, a
gene combination formed by crossing over
is just as easily dissolved by another cross-
ing over. The dissolution may be delayed
or prevented, however, if an inversion hap-
pens to occur in the chromosome carrying
the favorable combination. Inversions may
bind together gene combinations present
in a chromosome, because they suppress
crossing over. In this manner, chromo-
somal types that arise through inversions
may acquire different adaptive properties
and different selective values.
It should be kept in mind that the ex-
periments with population cages showed
that flies heterozygous for two chromo-
somes with different gene arrangements
have higher adaptive values than do the
homozygotes. It follows that natural selec-
tion, in wild populations of Drosophila
pseudoobscura, favors gene combinations
which give optimal results in heterozygous
compounds with other gene combinations
present in the same populations. The gene
combinations that insure the highest de-
gree of hybrid vigor are, evidently, those
in the third chromosomes bound by the
inversions. Now, different gene combina-
tions may be more or less favored in
localities with different environments, even
though these localities may be as near each
other in space as Keen Camp and Pinon
Flats. The different behaviors of the Keen
Camp population on the one hand, and of
the Pifion Flats and Andreas Canyon popu-
lations on the other, may thus be accounted
for. Further experiments are needed to
settle this problem.
Interspecific Hybridization in
Population Cages
Drosophila pseudoobscura and Drosoph-
ila persimilis are two closely related species.
They are almost indistinguishable in ex-
ternal morphology, yet are easily recog-
nized by their chromosomes as seen in
the salivary-gland cells. Their geographic
ranges are distinct but overlapping, and
the two species live side by side in an ex-
tensive territory. They show a partial
sexual isolation; that is, when females of
both species are confined with males of
one of them, a greater proportion of con-
specific than of non-conspecific females is
inseminated. If, however, an interspecific
mating has taken place, hybrids of both
sexes are easily produced, and these hy-
brids seem to be as vigorous as individuals
of the pure parental species. The Fi hy-
brid males are completely sterile. The Fi
hybrid females oviposit abundantly, and,
if inseminated by males of either parental
species, give rise to backcross progenies.
The viability of the backcross progenies,
however, is more or less strongly reduced
on account of a deleterious maternal effect
(the eggs of mothers with hybrid chromo-
somes are somehow injured). In labora-
tory experiments, it is possible to transfer
sections of chromosomes of Drosophila
pseudoobscura to Drosophila persimilis,
DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS
133
and vice versa. Nevertheless, no hybrids formed by cross-mating of pure pseudo-
have been so far encountered in nature, obscura and persimilis flies, and backcross
and the available evidence is against the hybrids derived from the Fi hybrid females
supposition that these species exchange formed in the previous generation and
genes in natural populations. This is but mated to males of the pure species. Back-
an illustration of the general rule: hy- cross hybrids might have either wild-type
bridization in captivity is no proof of or orange eyes; the Fi hybrids would be
hybridization in nature. all wild-type. They are not always dis-
The "population cages" offer a technique tinguishable by examination of the testes,
whereby conditions that obtain in natural but many of them can be told apart in this
populations can be approached more way. In reality, the 50 orange-eyed males
closely than is otherwise possible (no claim dissected were all pseudoobscura, whereas
is being made, however, that natural con- among the 117 wild-type males 114 were
ditions are duplicated). The problem, persimilis and only 3 hybrid, probably be-
then, is: to what extent will Drosophila longing to the Fi generation. On May 2,
pseudoobscura and Drosophila persimilis the cage contained 133 orange and 1247
exchange genes if they live together in wild-type flies. All the orange males (62)
the same population cage for several gen- were dissected, and proved to be pseudo-
erations? Late in December 1944, 600 obscura. Of 200 wild-type males dissected,
wild-type individuals of persimilis and 200 193 were persimilis and 7 were in all prob-
orange-eyed pseudoobscura were put in ability Fi hybrids.
one cage, and 600 wild persimilis and The absence of backcross hybrids is sug-
300 orange pseudoobscura in another cage! gestive. As was stated above, they can
The first cage was placed at a temperature be obtained in laboratory experiments, al-
of 210 C, and the second at 16.50 C. though their viability is low. Their failure
On February 3, 1945, the cage kept at to appear in the population cages indicates
210 contained 4689 adult flies, 464 of them that the lowering of the viability is lethal
with orange eyes and 4225 with wild-type under the conditions of crowding and in-
eyes. Since orange is an autosomal reces- tense competition that obtain in the popu-
sive gene, the orange-eyed flies were ob- lation cages, and probably in natural popu-
viously pure Drosophila pseudoobscura. lations as well. The Fi hybrid females are
The wild-type flies may have been either mostly fertile in the laboratory, but they
persimilis or hybrid. The hybrid males are likely to be completely sterile in nature,
can be distinguished from the nonhybrids This makes gene exchange between the
by dissection and microscopic examination species impossible.
of their testes. Out of 170 males so ex- The second population cage, kept at
amined, 10 were hybrids and 160 were 16.50 C, provides, for two reasons, a rigid
persimilis. In the total population of the test of the validity of the above conclusion,
cage, approximately 5.3 per cent were hy- First, low temperatures frequently permit
brids and 94.7 per cent pure species. The otherwise weak or nonviable types of Dro-
flies were returned to the cage, which was sophila to survive. Second, the sexual iso-
then placed at room temperature. lation between pseudoobscura and per-
On March 14, 1945, this cage contained similis, as Dr. Ernst Mayr has discovered,
1321 wild-type and 486 orange-eyed flies, is very weak at low temperatures; conse-
Two kinds of hybrids could now be ex- quently, many more hybrids will be pro-
pected in the cage: Fi generation hybrids duced. On February 3, 1945, this cage
134
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
kept in the cold room contained 2971
wild-type and 1083 orange flies. The latter
were obviously pseudoobscura. Among the
200 wild-type males dissected, 134 were
persimilis and 66 were hybrids. It is easy
to compute that the total population of the
cage consisted of approximately 76 per cent
pure species and 24 per cent hybrids. On
March 30, the cage had 3987 wild-type and
2634 orange flies. The 200 orange males
dissected were all pseudoobscura. Among
200 wild-type males, 169 were persimilis
and 31 were apparently Fi hybrids. It can
be computed that the proportion of hybrids
in the total population of the cage dropped
to about 9 per cent. The experiment was
discontinued on June 11, when the cage
contained 3390 wild-type and 1937 orange
flies. No hybrids were found among 200
orange males dissected. Only 17 hybrids,
apparently Fi, were among 300 normal-
eyed males examined. This amounts to
about 3.6 per cent of hybrids in the cage
population as a whole.
Apart from the production of some first-
generation hybrids, apparently no gene
exchange takes place between Drosophila
pseudoobscura and Drosophila persimilis
in population cages. The proportion of
hybrids in the population of a cage does
not increase from generation to generation.
As a matter of fact, the cage kept at 16.50
C. showed a fairly rapid decrease in the
incidence of hybrids with time. If con-
firmed in further experiments, this progres-
sive reduction of hybridization with time
will be a very important finding. For it
would constitute an experimental verifica-
tion of the hypothesis according to which
natural selection should strengthen re-
productive isolating mechanisms between
populations that are exposed to hybridiza-
tion and that produce hybrids with a low-
ered reproductive potential.
Dispersion Rates of Drosophila
pseudoobscura
Field experiments on the rate of disper-
sion of Drosophila pseudoobscura (see Year
Books Nos. 41 and 43) had to be discon-
tinued for a time because of war condi-
tions. They were resumed during the sum-
mer of 1945 at Mather, Tuolumne County,
California, using some of the facilities of
the Division of Plant Biology of the Car-
negie Institution. The writer wishes to ex-
press his most sincere appreciation to Drs.
}. Clausen and H. A. Spoehr, of that Divi-
sion, for their hospitality at Mather. The
experiments should, according to plan, take
two years; results will be reported later.
MOUSE LEUKEMIA
E. C. MacDowell, J. J. Biesele, G. Gasic, M. J. Taylor, and T. Laanes
During the past year, active work on
spontaneous leukemia has been confined
to the maintenance of experiments pre-
viously started. This has been the neces-
sary result of not having a histological
technician or a diagnostician, and of hav-
ing an insufficiency of mice. A major
proportion of the mice produced by the
unique leukemic strain C58 have been
contributed to a wartime medical research
program.
Spontaneous Leukemia in Strain Balb
It has long been supposed from casual
observation that strain Balb was largely
resistant to spontaneous leukemia. The
breeding period is long in these mice, and
large numbers far older than the most
frequent age for leukemia in strain C58
have been handled. The first actual deter-
mination of the incidence of leukemia in
a given sample of Balb mice has recently
DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS
135
been completed, with the surprising result
that, according to the diagnoses of gross
autopsies, nearly 70 per cent have died
with leukemia. We are grateful to Dr.
M. N. Richter, of New York Post Gradu-
ate Medical School and Hospital, for con-
firmatory microscopic diagnoses of a ran-
dom sample of 22 of these mice. The
reason that this high incidence of leu-
kemia was not anticipated is that the leu-
kemia (as indeed all causes of death) is
much later in appearing in this strain than
in strain C58. This fact is indicated by
the accompanying comparison of average
length of life and incidence of leukemia
in inbred females of three strains. This
table furnishes new evidence of the inde-
Leuke-
mics
(%)
Total
NO. OF
MICE
Length of life (days)
Strain
(females)
Non-
leukemic
Leukemic
Balb* . . .
Balbf. . .
StoLif...
C58f....
69.3
68.0
15.1
90.5
88
25
33
40
632.0
655.5
678.9
482.0
692.3
679.8
688.0
360.3
* Virgin females.
t Females which had produced young in connection with
the foster-nursing experiment previously described.
pendence of longevity and incidence of
leukemia, a subject discussed a year ago, in
that the relatively long-lived mice of strains
Balb and StoLi differ so greatly in the
incidence of leukemia, and in that the
many leukemics in strains C58 and Balb
differ so greatly in length of life.
Steroid Hormones and Transplanted
Leukemia
Gasic has carried out various experi-
ments with steroid hormones and trans-
planted leukemia, with the purpose of in-
vestigating the possible influence of these
hormones on the time of survival and the
pathological picture of inoculated mice.
Pellets of hormone, pure or mixed with
cholesterol, were inserted subcutaneously
into normal males and females and spayed
females of strain C58 at the age of one
month; the spaying was done at the same
time. The cholesterol and the pure hor-
mones— desoxycorticosterone acetate, pro-
gesterone, and testosterone propionate —
were generously provided by the Schering
Corporation. In most of the experiments,
leukemic cells of line I were used in doses
diluted to 1/256 of standard, which doses
are 100 per cent lethal in normal mice of
this strain. These doses were given 10, 21,
32, and 60 days after the hormone pellets.
The results indicate that the mice treated
with testosterone propionate 32 and 60
days before leukemic inoculation survived
a little longer than the controls. In differ-
ent experiments the averages were from
12 to 18 hours longer. The other two hor-
mones showed no effect on the time of
death.
Most of the effects of the hormones on
the anatomical pictures at autopsy were
those indicated in the literature on normal
organs. In mice with pellets of desoxycor-
ticosterone, however, the leukemic spleens
were unaccountably large. And in spayed
females the small hemorrhages that appear
in the lungs very shortly before death
from line-I leukemia were reduced in
frequency and size; this effect was partially
overcome by progesterone and eliminated
by testosterone propionate. Histological
study reveals that these pulmonary hemor-
rhagic spots are caused by thrombi rich in
leukemic cells; but the pathological mecha-
nism concerned, and the manner in which
sex hormones act upon it, are questions
for investigation.
Incidental observations showed that total
body weight of females was increased by
spaying, so that it surpassed that of males
by 32 days after the operation. Pellets of
testosterone propionate considerably coun-
136
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
teracted the effect of spaying. Progesterone
has a similar but less striking effect. In
leukemic mice the correlation between
weights of entire body and liver was high;
it was lower between body and spleen;
but thymus weights showed no correlation
with body weight. The spleen of the leu-
kemic female at death weighed less than
that of the male, but spaying females
eliminated this difference.
Alarm Reaction
In the course of the preceding work,
Gasic noted that mice of strain C58, inocu-
lated with leukemic cells of line I, showed
a severe involution of the thymus. This
observation had been made previously, in
experiments on immunity to leukemic cells
in this laboratory. But Gasic recognized
that this involution and other conditions
associated with it were characteristic of a
general syndrome described by Selye as
the "alarm reaction," which may be elicited
by a variety of deleterious conditions and
substances. Selye's 1940 list of stimuli
known to induce this reaction does not
include malignant growths.
After a period of incubation, the inocu-
lated animals show a clinical syndrome re-
sembling shock : lowered temperature, lack
of muscular tone and of appetite, sweat-
ing, drooping eyelids, and frequently a
white lachrymal secretion. Anatomically,
the chief features of the well developed
alarm reaction are : hypertrophy and other
gross changes of the adrenal, involution
of the thymus, atrophy of the pancreas,
general hyperemia, edema of the serosa,
and, less frequently, ulcers and erosion
of the digestive tract accompanied by
hemorrhages.
The defensive importance of the in-
volution of the thymus, under immediate
control of adrenal hormones, has recently
been brilliantly elucidated by the experi-
ments of Dougherty, White, and Chase.
Not only are antibodies delivered to the
blood stream by a hormonal control of
the thymus, but normal lymphocytes may
transfer specific antibodies to, and receive
them from, malignant cells of a trans-
planted lymphosarcoma. The appearance
of the gross phenomenon of thymic involu-
tion in certain leukemic hosts raises the
question of the possible part this phenome-
non may play in induced resistance to
leukemic cells.
In approaching the significance of this
reaction for the interpretation of leukemic
processes as well as for the mechanism of
resistance to leukemia, Gasic has studied
different experimental conditions and spon-
taneous cases. He has varied the genetic
constitution of the host and the size of
the dose of inoculated leukemic cells of
lines differing in virulence, number of
transfers, and other specific characteristics.
In general, the strength of this reaction
increases as the survival time is reduced.
In spontaneous cases and early transfers,
which are relatively chronic with large
tumorous lesions, the alarm reaction is
mostly undemonstrable. As the acuteness
increases in the course of successive trans-
fers, the leukemic lesions become progres-
sively smaller and the alarm reaction more
and more distinct. But even with an ex-
tremely virulent line of cells, the survival
time may be lengthened by reducing the
dose. This increases the size of the leu-
kemic lesions and diminishes the expres-
sion of the alarm reaction. Certain combi-
nations of genetically foreign hosts and
acute leukemias show extreme alarm reac-
tions, with minimum invasion of leukemic
cells. The gross changes in adrenal and
thymus are somewhat more evident in fe-
males than in males. Subsequent study will
trace the alarm reaction during the proc-
esses of resisting lethal doses of leukemic
cells and development of immunity. Does
DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS
137
a lethal dose in an immunized mouse occa-
sion involution of the thymus, without con-
ditions that in themselves might be respon-
sible for death? How different are the
causes of death in chronic and acute cases ?
Does resistance to the destructive aspects
of the alarm reaction also destroy leu-
kemic cells ? Is the increase in toxic action
in the course of successive transfers a
result of the increasing proportion of large
cells, or a change in a toxic agent carried
by the cells?
Chromosomes in Leukemia
In previous years, Biesele had found the
chromosomes of many neoplastic tissues to
be larger than, and usually about double
the volume of, chromosomes of normal
cells of the tissues of origin. Because the
number of chromosomally carried plasmo-
somes in many of the resting nuclei of the
neoplasms had doubled, and the frequency
of polyploid mitoses in some tumors was
low, it had been tentatively concluded that
the enlarged chromosomes of malignant
cells were structural multiples of the chro-
mosomes of normal cells.
The new work has tested this conclusion
by a study of chromosomes of leukemic
and normal tissues of different ages.
In the study of chromosome size in nor-
mal tissues, some 11 00 metaphase figures
have been drawn from 50 albino rats of
6 age groups. The animals were provided
by the Fels fund through the courtesy of
Dr. E. J. Farris, of the Wistar Institute
for Anatomy and Biology. Up to the
present, the following scheme of variability
in chromosome size has been disclosed. In
late embryos chromosomes of the chief
organs all measured about one-half cubic
micron; the thymus chromosomes, how-
ever, were two or three times smaller. After
birth the variability was greater : in lymph
nodes, spleen, and intestinal epithelium the
chromosomes became smaller with age, in
epidermis and lung they remained con-
stant, in kidney they increased in size,
and in liver their relative increase was
enormous, up to 20 times the size of the
smallest thymus chromosomes. The order
of tissues in adult rats, according to rela-
tive values based on average chromosome
volume, is as follows: lymph nodes and
spleen, 2; intestinal epithelium, 2+; epi-
dermis and lung, 3; kidney, 4+; liver, 8.
This seriation confirms one published ear-
lier from more limited material.
These data yield a provocative insight
into the nature and possible function of
somatic chromosomes, especially as the two
series are paralleled by others, from the
literature, dealing with the over-all enzyme
activities of adult rat organs and the con-
centrations of B vitamins, most of which
are known to be associated with enzyme
systems. The parallelism extends to em-
bryonic organs. In view of the growing
knowledge of the relation between gene
and enzyme, it seems permissible to repeat
here the suggestion that normal chromo-
somes, in proportion to their mitotic size,
might be instrumental in the synthesis of
protein apoenzymes of the cell. This
would suggest a possibly qualitative dif-
ferentiation of chromosomes in size and
function, according to cell type and age.
These generalizations can probably be
applied to the mouse. For example, livers
of C58 adults, regenerating after partial
surgical removal, contained chromosomes
much larger than those in embryonic liver.
It is known, however, that malignant
tissues often show reduced enzyme activi-
ties and vitamin concentrations. Is the
presumed productive effort of the enlarged
chromosomes in cancers abortive, being di-
verted to the benefit of the competitive
altered enzyme or "cancer virus" of V. R.
Potter's theory? Or is the enlargement of
chromosomes in neoplasms of a different
^8 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
sort from that in normal tissues, perhaps the normal lymphatic tissues; but this case
involving the less specific heterochromatin had other odd features, such as a great
instead of euchromatin? But if the en- deal of aneuploidy and polyploidy instead
larged chromosomes of cancers are actually of the usual uniform diploidy. Evidently
abnormally multiple in structure, each one in the majority of dividing C58 leukemia
must consist essentially of a number of cells there are chromosomes whose size
smaller chromosomes, and hence the eu- is equaled at some stage in the ontogenetic
chromatin could not have undergone the history of normal lymphocytes. Since it
differentiational enlargement suggested as is possible that equality of size of chromo-
leading to big chromosomes in normal somes could disguise an underlying dis-
cells. similarity of structure or material, our
Our knowledge of the processes occur- present observations hardly give us basis
ring in the enlargement of chromosomes for choice between J. S. Potter's concept
in malignancies is augmented in several of an altered rate of differentiation as the
ways by the study of chromosomes in leu- fundamental malignant change and the
kemia of C58 mice. theory of "tangential" differentiation of
First, we find that the development of some other oncologists,
leukemia reverses the reduction in size of Second, our study demonstrates that the
lymphocyte chromosomes, which normally enlargement of chromosomes in malig-
goes on rapidly in early life but more nancies may not be absolute and irrever-
slowly with age. Thus in spontaneous leu- sible, since the size of chromosomes in
kemias in 12 animals about 40 weeks old, leukemias appears to be environmentally
the average chromosome size in the en- modifiable. In each of the six transplanted
larged mesenteric nodes and spleens was lines, the over-all mean of chromosome
one-third to two-thirds greater than that volumes in specimens taken from female
in 3 coeval controls (0.37 cubic micron) . hosts was smaller by about one-fourth than
With respect to chromosome size the the mean for male specimens. There was
whole population of dividing leukemic some overlapping, however. That this sex
cells seems to have been shifted upward, difference in size of leukemic-cell chromo-
yet in this regard the leukemic popula- somes may have a hormonal basis is sug-
tions of the 40-week-old mice were hardly gested by examination of Gasic's material,
distinguishable from the normal lympho- For example, in spayed females, half of
cyte populations of 9 males about 2 months which bore implanted 12-mg. pellets of
old. Likewise, the average chromosome pure testosterone propionate for 1 month
volumes in the six current lines of long- before inoculation with leukemic cells, the
transplanted leukemia were about 0.8 cubic average chromosome volume in leukemic
micron, much the same as the average for lesions of the 6 animals receiving the hor-
the spleen of the newborn C58. Although mone was significantly greater than that
the upper limit of chromosome size in the in the 7 untreated animals. The ranges
six lines exceeded that in the newborn of chromosome size scarcely overlapped,
spleen, there is evidence that its peer may and the leukemic-cell chromosomes in the
be found in the primitive blood cells of spayed females without added testosterone
embryonic liver. In but one leukemia, a pellets were the size of normal lymphocyte
spontaneous case in a 2-year-old hybrid chromosomes in intact males at 7 weeks,
female, were there chromosomes of a size The above observation indicates that in
(up to 2.0 cubic microns) unparalleled in lesions even of highly virulent lines, cells
DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS
139
with small chromosomes may be leukemic.
In addition, the smallest chromosomes
found in the supposedly totally leukemic
lesions of liver were usually but little larger
than the mean size of lymphocyte chromo-
somes within uninoculated animals.
The third contribution made by these
studies of leukemia to our knowledge of
chromosomes in malignancies is the reali-
zation that their enlargement may be
gradual. With the exception of the aber-
rant case mentioned above, the frequency
distributions of metaphases according to
average chromosome volume in the 60
leukemic specimens studied are interpret-
able as unimodal, rather than polymodal
as in many cancers. The increase in chro-
mosome volume from the normal condi-
tion through chronic spontaneous leu-
kemia to its highly virulent transplanted
derivative also promises to be a continuous
one. A slow hypertrophy of the chromo-
somes in mouse leukemia, rather than a
sudden doubling in volume such as occurs
in mouse skin painted with carcinogenic
hydrocarbons, would suggest that a more
subtle change than an abrupt structural
modification by doubling of strand num-
ber may be responsible, not only in leu-
kemic cells but also in cells of other types
of malignancy.
Direct studies of structure on the chro-
matid level, by uncoiling chromosomes
and allowing sister chromatids to fall
free of one another, are in progress.
Should it be determined that the chromo-
somes of leukemic cells contain no more
than two chromatids, as would seem likely
from the earlier observations of Claude
and Potter on chromatin threads isolated
from leukemic cells, and that the leu-
kemic-cell chromatid gives no visible evi-
dence of a more complex structure than
that of the normal lymphocyte chromatid,
then the explanation of larger size of chro-
mosomes in leukemic cells would have to
be sought on a level other than that of the
chromatids or their immediate precursors
— perhaps ultimately on the level of mo-
lecular amount or kind. On this level a
gradual size increase would be readily ex-
plicable, but it should not be interpreted
offhand as the exact reversal of the onto-
genetic diminution.
In summary, we are left with the sug-
gestion that the enlarged chromosomes of
C58 leukemia are either immature normal
chromosomes or products of differentia-
tion in an abnormal direction. If the latter
•view be accepted, it is not clear what form
the hypertrophy has taken, nor whether
the chromosomes are structurally or ma-
terially altered. The size of the chromo-
somes is fairly labile and responsive to cer-
tain environmental conditions. Apart from
the question of leukemia, the demonstra-
tion that the size of mouse chromosomes
can be influenced by means of hormones
would seem to be of importance in chro-
mosomal physiology. This is especially
true in view of the suggestion that there
is a differentiation of chromosomes accord-
ing to cell type and age, in which the size
of the chromosomes reflects their activity
in some part of the manufacture of intra-
cellular enzymes.
ENDOCRINE STUDIES
O. Riddle, W. F. Hollander, M. R. McDonald, E. L. Lahr, and G. C. Smith
During the past year most members of research. In March Mr. Lahr left to be-
this group have shared in the conduct of come associated with the School of Dentis-
research, and also assisted in the prepara- try of New York University. At intervals
tion of manuscripts dealing with previous during the year Professor Hoyt S. Hop-
140
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
kins, of the Department of Physiology,
New York University, rendered further
assistance in summarizing the results of
our extended study on heat production in
doves and pigeons. Manuscripts constitut-
ing a small volume, "Studies on carbohy-
drate and fat metabolism, with especial
reference to the pigeon," were completed
in January. These studies by Riddle and
associates will appear as publication 569
of the Carnegie Institution of Washing-
ton. Manuscripts dealing with our pro-
longed studies on races of doves and
pigeons, "Endocrines and constitution in
doves and pigeons," were completed later.
In July, substantially the whole of our
program of research was brought to a
conclusion.
The Effect of Reproduction and Estro-
gen Administration on the Parti-
tion of Calcium, Phosphorus, and
Nitrogen in Pigeon Plasma
A partial report was made last year on
the partition of those plasma components
that might be capable of binding the large
increases in calcium observed in pigeon
plasma during periods of egg production
or after injection of estrogens. These
studies by McDonald and Riddle have
now been completed and the results pub-
lished. Changes in the various calcium,
phosphorus, and nitrogen components of
plasma were studied (a) in 75 adult female
pigeons during the reproductive cycle and
(b) in 31 normal, 4 fasted, 13 parathy-
roidectomized, and 4 hypophysectomized
pigeons injected with estrogens. Birds of
both sexes, varying in age from 1.5 months
to 5 years, were used in the latter study;
65 additional pigeons (46 normal, 13 para-
thyroidectomized, and 6 hypophysectom-
ized) were used as controls.
No significant differences occurred in
either ultranltrable calcium, ultrafiltrable
inorganic phosphorus, or nonprotein nitro-
gen during the reproductive cycle or after
the injection of estrogens. Nonultrafil-
trable calcium, nonultrafiltrable inorganic
phosphorus, lipid phosphorus, and protein
phosphorus all increased markedly from
4 days before the ovulation of the first
ovum until 2 days after the ovulation of
the second (last) ovum. Similar, and even
greater, increases resulted (in all the types
of pigeons studied) from the daily injec-
tion of from 0.25 to 0.5 mg. estradiol ben-
zoate for from 4 to 25 days. Small in-
creases in protein nitrogen were noted
under these conditions. Endogenous estro-
gens, as postulated by Riddle in 1927,
are probably responsible for the increased
plasma calcium, phosphorus, and nitrogen
found during the reproductive cycle.
Calculations of the regression equations
and correlation coefficients between the
various plasma components that increased
owing to endogenous or administered es-
trogens showed that the nonultrafiltrable
calcium of pigeon plasma exists in three
forms: (a) colloidal calcium phosphate,
(b) calcium bound to the phosphoprotein,
serum vitellin, and (c) calcium bound to
the plasma proteins other than vitellin.
Increments in (a) and (b) accounted for
all the estrogen-induced increases in non-
ultrafiltrable calcium. The changes found
in the partition of the latter as it in-
creased during reproduction or under the
influence of administered estrogens are
summarized in figure 1. In 72 control
pigeons, 36 per cent of the nonultrafiltrable
calcium occurred as colloidal calcium phos-
phate, 12 per cent was bound to vitellin,
and 52 per cent was bound to the plasma
proteins other than vitellin. In 102 estro-
gen-treated pigeons, however, 37 per cent
of the nonultrafiltrable calcium was in the
form of colloidal calcium phosphate, only
8 per cent was bound to the plasma pro-
teins other than vitellin, and 55 per cent
DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS
I4I
was bound to vitellin. Calculations of the
calcium-binding capacity of serum vitellin
showed that 1 gram of this phosphoprotein
can apparently combine with more than
7 mg. of calcium — a value 8 to 9 times
greater than that of the other plasma
proteins.
trable phosphorus; protein phosphorus was
responsible for 36 per cent, and nonultra-
filtrable inorganic phosphorus for the re-
maining 8 per cent.
Benjamin and Hess (1933) noted that
barium sulfate adsorbs from plasma a
part of the nonultrafiltrable calcium. They
2 60
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-J
<
o
uj 50
_i
CD
<
J 40h
U.
<
DC
h-
3 30
O 20
UJ
o
UJ
CL
10 -
T
VITELLIN-BOUND CALCIUM
_o— ©-
<!> /
COLLOIDAL CALCIUM
\PR0TEIN (total less vitellin)- BOUND
*- CALCIUM
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
MG. NONULTRAFILTRABLE CALCIUM PER 100 ML. PLASMA
Fig. 1. Analysis, on a percentage basis, of the partition of nonultrafiltrable calcium in pigeon
plasma. Each point represents the average of 10 to 29 determinations.
No evidence was obtained for the pres-
ence of a phospholipid-calcium complex in
the plasmas of pigeons with hypercalcemia
due to administered or endogenous estro-
gens. Lipid phosphorus accounted for 93
per cent of the nonultrafiltrable phos-
phorus in the plasmas of the control
pigeons, but for only 56 per cent of the
estrogen-induced increases in nonultrafil-
assumed that this procedure separates the
nonultrafiltrable calcium into at least two
fractions: protein-bound calcium and an
unknown adsorbable complex. Their pro-
cedure has been widely used in other labo-
ratories, but the possibility that barium
sulfate might also adsorb protein has ap-
parently been neglected. Results obtained
in this laboratory on 31 samples of pigeon
142
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
plasma confirmed the fact that part of
the nonultrafiltrable calcium was adsorbed
by barium sulfate. The latter, however,
also adsorbed part of the phosphoprotein,
serum vitellin. It is therefore impossible
to separate, by the procedure of Benjamin
and Hess, protein-bound calcium from the
adsorbable complex. There is probably a
partial adsorption of all the nonultrafil-
trable calcium fractions rather than a com-
plete adsorption of one or more specific
fractions.
Action of Thyroxine on Estrogen-
Induced Changes in Blood Chem-
istry and Endosteal Bone
Estrogens, in addition to increasing the
calcium, phosphorus, and lipid content
of bird plasma, also induce growth of
the oviduct and formation of endosteal
bone. Fleischmann and Fried (1944-1945)
made the important observation that thy-
roxine, when administered to immature
chicks simultaneously (in equal amounts
by weight) with estradiol dipropionate,
greatly reduces the ability of the estrogen
to increase the plasma calcium, inorganic
phosphorus, vitellin, phospholipid, and
cholesterol, but does not inhibit the estro-
gen-induced growth of the oviduct.
Experiments were undertaken in this
laboratory to determine (a) whether the
results obtained with simultaneous dosage
of thyroxine and estrogen in fowl could
be duplicated in pigeons, (b) whether
such treatment prevents the increase in
plasma neutral fat which follows the use
of estrogen alone, and (c) whether endos-
teal bone can be formed under the simul-
taneous administration of thyroxine and
estradiol benzoate. The results obtained
have been published. It was found that
thyroxine prevented the marked estrogen-
induced increases in plasma neutral fat,
calcium, inorganic phosphorus, lipid phos-
phorus, protein phosphorus, and total ni-
trogen. It did not measurably inhibit the
ability of estrogen to induce formation of
endosteal bone or growth of the oviduct.
It therefore seems improbable that thy-
roxine is a physiological antagonist of
estrogens. Its inhibiting action on the
estrogen-induced increases in plasma con-
stituents is probably a secondary effect
associated with increased metabolism and
excretion of calcium, phosphorus, and
nitrogen.
The data from these experiments af-
forded further proof that all the nonultra-
filtrable-noncolloidal calcium not bound by
the normal plasma proteins is bound by
the phosphoprotein, serum vitellin. When
the nonultrafiltrable-noncolloidal calcium
values for the thyroxine-treated pigeons
were plotted against those for protein
phosphorus, all the points were found to
lie on the regression line previously calcu-
lated for 104 estrogen-treated pigeons.
When such data for nonultrafiltrable-non-
colloidal calcium were plotted against lipid
phosphorus, however, none of the points
fell on the regression line calculated for
31 normal pigeons injected with estrogen.
Solubility of the Plasma Proteins
in Alcohol
It was noted last year that at least one
of the plasma proteins had the peculiar
property of being soluble in acidified mix-
tures of 3 parts ethanol and 1 part ether.
Further investigation of this unusual phe-
nomenon has been possible through the
courtesy of Dr. John T. Edsall, who has
kindly supplied us with several of the
plasma products developed by the Depart-
ment of Physical Chemistry of the Har-
vard Medical School from blood collected
by the American Red Cross. The study
has not been completed, but the results
thus far obtained are extremely interest-
DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS
143
ing. They suggest that, if investigations
are made over a wide range of pH, it may
be found that alcohol solubility is a much
more common property of proteins than
has previously been postulated.
Crystalline serum albumin was found to
be highly soluble in 95 per cent ethanol
or mixtures of 3 parts ethanol and 1 part
ether, in the presence of small amounts of
hydrochloric, nitric, lactic, acetic, or tri-
chloracetic (but not sulfuric) acid. The
effect of trichloracetic acid is especially
noteworthy, since it completely precipitates
albumin from aqueous solutions. Albumin
precipitated by trichloracetic acid can still
be dissolved by acidified 95 per cent
ethanol or ethanol-ether mixtures. The
range of pH in which albumin is soluble
in 95 per cent ethanol extends from below
pH 1.5 to about pH 4.5.
Some, but not all, of the several a (or 3)
globulins were also found to be soluble in
acidified 95 per cent ethanol and, to a
lesser degree, in ethanol-ether mixtures. So-
lutions of these fractions, however, unlike
those of albumin, are unstable, and the
globulins slowly precipitate. The y-globu-
lins and fibrinogen appear to be insoluble
in 95 per cent ethanol in the range of pH
thus far studied.
Attempts have been made to develop a
method, based on the above observations,
for the quantitative determination of al-
bumin and globulin. The results to date
are extremely promising. Further refine-
ments of technique should yield a sim-
ple procedure for the analysis of these
components.
Partial Melanism Associated with
Parathyroid Enlargement
Melanism arising from physiological dis-
turbance has not previously been reported
for domestic pigeons. A few cases of
partial melanism have been observed in
the pigeon colony of this department
under circumstances that suggest the na-
ture of the factors intimately associated
with the belated appearance of this condi-
tion. Hollander and Riddle have found
that, on the diet supplied to birds of this
colony, a deficiency of sunlight regularly
leads to enlargement of the parathyroids
and also seems to be concerned in the oc-
casional onset of partial melanism. This
melanism had the following characteris-
tics: (a) it was observed only in adult
female pigeons of essentially wild-type
coloration — gray-blue with black bands on
tail and wings; (b) it was definitely partial
rather than complete; (c) it first appeared
after one or more molts; (d) when the
blackening did not involve entire feathers
it produced transverse bands on the feath-
ers, not longitudinal streaks such as are
typical of mosaic effects.
Five cases of this type of nongenetic
partial melanism were observed in adult
female domestic pigeons. One similar case
was observed in an old male hybrid
(Zenaida X Zenaidurd) dove after it be-
came unable to fly. Two physiological con-
ditions, slight exposure to sunlight and
enlargement of the parathyroids (3 to 6
times normal), were known to be asso-
ciated with all these six cases of melanism.
It is considered probable that these condi-
tions were also responsible for previously
reported instances of melanism in caged
wild birds. In two instances, plucked mela-
nistic feathers were replaced by normal
feathers following the administration of
a concentrate of cod-liver oil (vitamin D) .
Parathyroid enlargement was shown to
occur regularly in young pigeons reared
on a mixed-grain diet in the absence of
direct sunlight (vitamin D deficiency).
Grossly defective ossification of the bones
(rickets) of many such pigeons was also
noted. These conditions have been ob-
served repeatedly by others in fowl.
i44
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
Rachitic squabs never have shown mela-
nism even when their parathyroids were
very large. A more prolonged deficiency,
or an element of aging, therefore, seems to
be necessary for the appearance of mela-
nistic feathers. Something more than
chance is probably responsible for the fact
that this type of melanism has not been
observed in a male pigeon. It should be
noted that the male's supply of calcium
and vitamin D is not subject to the special
drains and losses that necessarily accom-
pany egg production in the adult female.
Intersexuality in Male Embryos of
Pigeons
A transient intersexuality in male em-
bryos of certain species of birds has been
reported by various investigators. The
species in which this condition has been
observed include the fowl, English spar-
row, blackbird, and pheasant, hawks, and
ring doves. This anomaly involves a
temporary development of ovarian cortex
on the left testes, but usually not on the
right testes, of genetic male embryos.
Lahr and Riddle investigated the question
whether this type of intersexuality exists in
the pigeon, and also made a comparison
of the conditions found in normal breeds
of pigeons with those existing in the spe-
cial strain of hermaphrodite-producing pi-
geons developed in this laboratory.
Ovarian cortical tissue is present on the
left testes of all pigeons examined at the
14th and 15th days of incubation. In testes
from normal races of pigeons (33 cases),
ovarian tissue showed degeneration be-
tween the 14th day of incubation and the
end of incubation (18 days) ; in such testes
the ovarian tissue disappeared completely
at or before the time of hatching.
Testes derived from embryos of the
hermaphrodite strain (28 cases) differed
from those of normal type in showing a
delay in the time at which atrophy of the
cortical tissue begins; this atrophy was first
observed, in 2 of 7 cases examined, on day
17. This tissue had disappeared in only 1
of 4 embryos at day 18, and in only 3 of 6
embryos examined at 5 days after hatching.
Birds that retain large amounts of ovarian
tissue at and after hatching are presumably
the ones that have been observed to possess
a left ovotestis and (or) a left oviduct in
adult life.
Miscellaneous
Dr. Hollander has prepared various
papers or items for publication. The titles
of these communications will be found in
the bibliography for this year or next year.
One of these papers provided an extensive
review of "Mosaic effects in domestic
birds"; another study, conducted on the
flock of pigeons personally maintained by
Dr. Hollander, resulted in the paper, "A
lethal achondroplasia in the pigeon."
Mrs. Smith has developed and published
a technique for the complete removal of
the parathyroid glands of pigeons. Several
studies conducted in this laboratory during
the past two or three years on medullary
bone formation, and on factors affecting
calcium and phosphorus levels in the blood,
have required an extensive use of this tech-
nique. Riddle, Rauch, and Smith earlier
found that the parathyroid tissue of cer-
tain pigeons (e.g., Carneaux) lies wholly
external to the thyroids; in these animals,
therefore, parathyroidectomy is of special
interest, since it involves no injury to or
reduction of thyroid tissue.
Endocrines and Constitution
Manuscripts describing the results of
Riddle's twenty-four-year study of the re-
lation of endocrines to constitution in
doves and pigeons have been completed.
Several of the more important results of
that study have been indicated in Year
Books of the past eighteen years. The
DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS
145
additional facts that have emerged under a
final analysis of the data cannot be prop-
erly considered here; they are presented
in one or another of the eighteen chapters
which provide a full account of one of the
Institution's most prolonged experimental
studies. The present statement, however,
will refer to one result that hitherto was
unsuspected, and will in addition discuss
briefly the nature and significance of the
entire study.
An unusual "selection" experiment, con-
ducted principally on twenty-four pairs of
ring doves (and on their progeny), will be
discussed further in later paragraphs. The
final data show that at least two of these
twenty-four derived dove progenies, or
"races," differed from other races with
respect to a sex difference in body weight.
Normally, male doves are heavier than
females; but the present tests led to the
establishment of two races in which this
condition did not exist, and also to the
establishment of still other races in which
this sex difference was more marked than
in other races. It should be stated that
these differences were not consciously
sought, but were a by-product of other
selection. Since various measurements
were made continuously on all the races
(progenies), the data thus obtained might
be expected to provide information con-
cerning the relation of endocrine status
to the presence or absence of this sex
difference in body weight. This expecta-
tion was fulfilled only in small measure.
Good, though perhaps inadequate, evi-
dence indicated that races which show no
difference in body weight have the high-
est rate of heat production and therefore
probably a high level of thyroid function;
again, races with unusually large sex
difference in body weight had unusually
low rates of heat production. Less con-
sistent evidence indicates that in races
which show no sex difference in body
13
weight the females attain sexual maturity
at a more advanced age than do the fe-
males of races which exhibit a sex differ-
ence in body weight.
The primary purpose of the study now
completed was to learn whether certain
of the individual differences of doves could
be established as racial characteristics, and,
if so, whether hormonal differences are
associated with one or another of such
racial differences. It would seem that facts
derivable from a study of this kind should
have nonnegligible implications in regard
to both individual and racial differences
in man. In the long and complicated task
of recognizing, measuring, and evaluating
human constitutional differences — as in the
similar and, we believe, better-performed
task concerning human origin — it seems
clear that experimental animals must be
expected to supply some basic principles
and much indispensable information. A
variety of reasons led to the acceptance of
doves and pigeons as species especially
suitable for one such study. For example,
the degree of mongrelization present in
each of these species is apparently com-
parable with that in the human population
of an American city, and many findings
relating to constitutional factors in these
birds are probably applicable to man. Sup-
port for that early view has accumulated
during the twenty-four years that have
elapsed since the present study was started.
During the progress of this study it
became evident that we were, in fact, then
dealing with physiological and structural
inequalities of related groups of individuals
(races). It should be observed that the
word "inequalities," not "differences," is
used in the preceding sentence. Since
physical conditions could here be virtually
leveled — substantially equalized — and since
social, educational, and related influences
are wholly improbable in this material, it
146
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
is concluded that the highly important dis-
tinction between "inequalities" and "differ-
ences" is implicit in the results of this
investigation.
Whether the segregated groups should
be called "races," "breeds," "stocks," or
"types" is immaterial. It is wholly prob-
able that numerous humans carry and
transmit genetic factors predisposing to the
extremes of most or all of the several
traits studied in doves. And the strong
presumptive evidence that similar segre-
gates are (theoretically) obtainable within
Homo sapiens is not contradicted by any
valid evidence of which the writer is
aware. The results of the present investi-
gation thus provide direct experimental
support for the view, now prevalent among
anthropologists, that the products of en-
docrine glands do much to shape the
anatomical variants with which their meas-
urements usually deal. These results also
lend support to those few anthropologists
who conclude that it is not alone "under-
privilege which makes the underdog."
Widespread genetic inequalities of indi-
viduals and groups characterized the or-
ganisms here subjected to tests.
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Dobzhansky, Th. On species and races of living
and fossil man. Amer. Jour. Phys. Anthro-
pol., n. s., vol. 2, pp. 251-265 (1944).
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p. 406 (1944). (Reprinted in: Amer. Biol.
Teacher, vol. 7, pp. 127-128, 1945.)
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— Genes and the man. (Review) Science,
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— and E. Mayr. Experiments on sexual
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strains of Drosophila willistoni. Proc. Nat.
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— and G. Streisinger. Experiments on
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(1944).
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vol. 100, p. 52 (1944).
Fano, U. See Demerec, M.
Gay, H. See Kaufmann, B. P.
Hellmer, Alice M. Recording magnification
in photomicrographs. Jour. Biol. Photogr.
Assoc, vol. 13, pp. 41-42 (1944).
Hollaender, A., E. R. Sansome, E. Zimmer,
and M. Demerec. Quantitative irradiation
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vol. 32, pp. 226-235 (1945).
See Kaufmann, B. P.; Sansome, E. R.
DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS
147
Hollander, W. F. Mosaic effects in domestic
birds. Quart. Rev. Biol., vol. 19, pp. 285-
307 (1944).
A "network" versus separate pedigrees.
Jour. Hered., vol. 35, p. 300 (1944).
• and O. Riddle. On partial melanism
associated with parathyroid enlargement in
pigeons and doves. Amer. Naturalist, vol.
79, pp. 456-463 (i945)-
See Riddle, O.
Kaufmann, B. P., and A. Hollaender. Altera-
tion of the frequency of X-ray-induced
chromosomal breaks by use of ultraviolet
and near infrared radiation. (Abstract)
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H. Gay, and A. Hollaender. Distribu-
tion of mitoses in the corneal epithelium
of the rabbit and the rat. Anat. Rec, vol. 90,
pp. 161-178 (1944).
Lahr, E. L., and O. Riddle. The action of
steroid hormones on the mature dove testis.
Endocrinology, vol. 35, pp. 261-266 (1944).
Intersexuality in male embryos
of pigeons. Anat. Rec, vol. 92, pp. 425-431
(i945)-
See Riddle, O.
Luria, S. E. A growth-delaying effect of ultra-
violet radiation on bacterial viruses. Proc.
Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. 30, pp. 393-397 0944) •
McDonald, M. R., and O. Riddle. The effect of
reproduction and estrogen-administration on
the partition of calcium, phosphorus, and
nitrogen in pigeon plasma. Jour. Biol.
Chem., vol. 159, pp. 445-464 (1945).
and G. C. Smith. Action of
thyroxin on estrogen-induced changes in
blood chemistry and endosteal bone. Endo-
crinology, vol. 37, pp. 23-28 (1945).
See Riddle, O
MacDowell, E. C., J. S. Potter, and M. J.
Taylor. Mouse leukemia. XII. The role
of genes in spontaneous cases. Cancer Res.,
vol. 5, pp. 65-83 (1945).
Mayr, E., and Th. Dobzhansky. Experiments
on sexual isolation in Drosophila. IV.
Modification of the degree of isolation be-
tween Drosophila pseudoobscura and Dro-
sophila persimilis and of sexual preferences
in Drosophila prosaltans. Proc. Nat. Acad.
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from the point of view of a biologist. School
and Society, vol. 61, pp. 113-116 (1945).
— W. F. Hollander, and J. P. Schooley.
A race of hermaphrodite-producing pigeons.
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— and E. L. Lahr. On broodiness of ring
doves following implants of certain steroid
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260 (1944).
Relative ability of various ste-
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oviduct of immature ring doves. Yale Jour.
Biol. Med., vol. 17, pp. 259-268 (1944).
— and M. R. McDonald. The partition
of plasma calcium and inorganic phosphorus
in estrogen-treated normal, parathyroidecto-
mized and hypophysectomized pigeons. En-
docrinology, vol. 36, pp. 48-52 (1945).
— V. M. Rauch, and G. C. Smith. Action
of estrogen on plasma calcium and endosteal
bone formation in parathyroidectomized
pigeons. Endocrinology, vol. 36, pp. 41-47
(i945)-
Changes in medullary
bone during the reproductive cycle of female
pigeons. Anat. Rec, vol. 90, pp. 295-305
(1944).
— and J. P. Schooley. Tests indicating
absence of progesterone in certain avian
ovaries. Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci., vol. 34, pp.
341-346 (1944).
— See Hollander, W. F.; Lahr, E. L.;
McDonald, M. R.
Sansome, E. R., M. Demerec, and A. Hol-
laender. Quantitative irradiation experi-
ments with Neurospora crassa. I. Experi-
ments with X-rays. Amer. Jour. Bot., vol.
32, pp. 218-226 (1945).
See Hollaender, A.
Schooley, J. P. See Riddle, O.
Smith, G. C. The technique of parathyroidec-
tomy in pigeons. Anat. Rec, vol. 92, pp. 81-
86 (1945).
See McDonald, M. R.; Riddle, O.
Streisinger, G. See Dobzhansky, Th.
Taylor, M. J. See MacDowell, E. C.
Warmke, H. E. The effect of tetraploidy on root
weight and rubber content in the Russian
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vol. 31, pp. 6S-7S (1944).
Experimental polyploidy and rubber
content in Taraxacum \o\-saghyz. Bot.
Gaz., vol. 106, pp. 316-324 (1945).
Zimmer, E. See Hollaender, A.
NUTRITION LABORATORY
Boston, Massachusetts
THORNE M. CARPENTER, Director
The activities of the Nutrition Labora- understood, but has consisted in funda-
tory during the past year have been de- mental studies on basal metabolism and
voted almost exclusively to investigations heat production as a basis for determining
on war research projects under a contract the requirements of energy in nutrition
of the Office of Scientific Research and to meet the needs for heat for body proc-
Development with Harvard University, esses and muscular activity. Only occa-
These studies are conducted in cooperation sionally have prescribed diets, digestibility
with the Harvard School of Public Health, studies, and analyses of foods been em-
The investigation that was started on Janu- ployed. Special studies on food composi-
ary i, 1943 was finished during the past tion have occasionally been made, such as
year. Several other projects have been com- analyses of Bengali foods, foods of the
pleted or are rapidly approaching comple- Maya, foods of the Navajo Indians, and
tion. Three reports have been prepared for the common everyday extra foods eaten at
the Office of Scientific Research and De- other times than regular meals,
velopment. With the resignation of mem- From the beginning, emphasis has been
bers of the staff and the almost complete laid upon exchange of information with
absorption of the remaining staff mem- workers in other countries. Periodic trips
bers in the war researches, all other scien- were made to Europe, to become ac-
tific activities have ceased. With formal quainted with investigators in similar lines
conclusion of the Laboratory's work in of work, to gain a more intimate knowl-
immediate prospect, a review of its contri- edge of their researches, and to acquire
butions during the past thirty-eight years newly developed apparatus that would be
is made part of this report. useful in investigations in the Laboratory.
The Nutrition Laboratory was estab- Information regarding experimental work
lished in 1907 with Dr. Francis G. Bene- in progress in the Laboratory was im-
dict as Director, and he continued in this parted freely to other workers, and on
capacity until 1937, when he retired. The several trips series of lectures were given
building was completed early in 1908 and gratuitously on the latest studies in the
active work on construction of apparatus Laboratory. Foreign workers were invited
and the carrying out of investigations be- to spend the greater part of an academic
gan at that time. year at the Nutrition Laboratory as re-
The primary purpose of the Laboratory search associates. The funds for most of
was to conduct fundamental scientific in- these were provided by special grants from
vestigations in vital activity with special the Institution, and occasionally by grants
reference to the laws governing total from other organizations. Many other
metabolism, heat production, heat elimina- workers came to the Laboratory for periods
tion, and heat regulation. Although the of varying length to become acquainted
undertaking was designated as the Nutri- with the various forms of apparatus and
tion Laboratory, the main part of its work the problems on which the Laboratory was
has not been in nutrition as popularly engaged. Many American investigators
149
150
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
also, who participated later in cooperative
studies, came to the Laboratory to be
trained in the apparatus and techniques.
Cooperation with other workers and
other institutions and universities has
had a prominent role all through the
investigations of the Laboratory. In the
first year of active construction of ap-
paratus, 1908, a cooperative study on the
metabolism of diabetes mellitus in man
was begun with Dr. Elliott P. Joslin, of
the New England Deaconess Hospital.
This cooperation with him and with his
colleagues was carried on almost continu-
ously until 1943. Other cooperative in-
vestigations are mentioned below.
A major part of the activities of the
Laboratory has been the development and
testing of various types of apparatus for the
measurement of heat production, heat
elimination, respiratory exchange, and sur-
face and internal body temperature. The
earliest project was the construction of
four respiration calorimeters for human
subjects for special purposes, and more
particularly for periods shorter than 24
hours. The comparison of direct and in-
direct calorimetry was an outstanding
problem; it was found that the measure-
ment of respiratory exchange in short
periods gave a reliable measure of heat
production, and consequently the use of
calorimeters was gradually diminished.
The necessity for a more sensitive type
of calorimeter for measuring rapid changes
in heat elimination such as might occur
in studies of heat regulation led to the
development of the emission respiration
calorimeter for animals in 1916 and for
humans in 1920. At the time of writing,
with the finding that direct calorimetry
is no longer necessary for the majority of
problems in total metabolism, only the
emission calorimeter for humans is still
in functioning condition.
From the beginning the development
of respiratory apparatus for measurement
of very short periods was also an object
of investigation. This resulted in an ap-
paratus by which reliable results could be
obtained in as short a period as one-quarter
hour. This apparatus has been simplified
more and more, and now devices based
on the principles involved are widely used
in thousands of clinics and hospitals for
determination of basal metabolism of hu-
man patients. Various types of apparatus
were also originated for determining the
respiratory exchange of animals of various
sizes and species. The standard European
types of apparatus for measurement of total
metabolism were obtained. For many years
one of the most important phases of the
work of the Laboratory was the study of
the use of these apparatus — also of ap-
paratus devised in American laboratories
— and of their technical difficulties, relia-
bility, and accuracy, in comparison with
the apparatus originated in the Laboratory.
Most of the earlier respiration appa-
ratus devised in the Laboratory were
based on the closed-circuit principle. In
1922, however, a gas analysis apparatus
was developed which permitted the an-
alysis of atmospheric air and air coming
from open-circuit respiration apparatus
with an extraordinarily high degree of
accuracy. Thereafter, more and more the
open-circuit principle of measurement of
respiratory exchange was applied, par-
ticularly in studies on animals of various
sizes, and in studies where exact informa-
tion was needed on the respiratory quo-
tient as an index of the character of body
material and the rapidity with which true
basal condition was obtained, and on the
effect of food on the character of the
metabolism. The use of the open-circuit
principle with gas analysis made possible
the measurement of total metabolism of
NUTRITION LABORATORY
151
animals with which the use of the closed-
circuit system would have been imprac-
ticable.
The necessity for establishing standards
of basal metabolism of normal human sub-
jects of both sexes was early recognized, and
this project constituted one of the major ac-
tivities of the Laboratory. Gradually large
enough numbers of adult human subjects
were studied so that standards were de-
vised based on height, weight, age, and
sex instead of body surface. This accumu-
lation of measurements also furnished ma-
terial for derivation of basal metabolism
standards in other ways by other workers.
It is now customary for students of basal
metabolism to use the Nutrition Labora-
tory standards as well as other standards
for the estimation of the normality and
abnormality of basal metabolism results.
The studies on the normal basal metabo-
lism were also extended to comprehensive
series on human subjects from birth to
old age, so standards are now available
for all ages of both sexes of humans. Spe-
cial researches were made on the condi-
tions that may affect basal metabolism,
such as position of the body, temperature,
vegetarian diet, athletic activity, environ-
ment, season, fatigue, and the neutral bath.
As several members of the staff either have
been on the staff for a number of years or
were available for periodic measurements,
information has been obtained on the
progressive effects of age on this factor.
In 1912, a notable study was made of
the total metabolism, heat regulation, and
balance of energy and of materials in a
31-day fast of a human male subject.
In 1913, an extensive program on the
physiological and psychological effects of
ethyl alcohol was inaugurated, and for a
number of years this constituted a sub-
stantial part of the activities of the Labora-
tory. Even after the advent of the prohi-
bition law the study of the physiology and
chemistry of alcohol in man and animals
was continued in special researches.
In 1917-1918, a comprehensive investiga-
tion was made of the physiological and
chemical aspects of a group of young men
of the International Y. M. C. A. College in
Springfield who underwent undernutri-
tion for an extended period. This resulted
in considerable information on the ability
of young men to carry on the physical
and mental activities of normal life on a
submaintenance diet.
The finding in 1925 that the basal me-
tabolism of Oriental women living in the
United States was lower than that found
for American women led to an intensive
and cooperative campaign on the study of
race metabolism. A special apparatus was
devised, compact and easily transportable,
for the determination of basal metabolism
in field studies and anthropology. Workers
from other laboratories were trained at
the Nutrition Laboratory and subsequently
carried on studies of the basal metabolism
of races in various parts of the world. The
studies included the blacks and browns in
Jamaica, the Maya in Yucatan, women of
various races in southern India, the aborig-
ines of Australia, natives of Manchuria,
types of Chinese in eastern and western
China, and various races and mixtures
of races in the Hawaiian Islands. The
results have been brought together in a
large number of publications on race me-
tabolism and have shown clearly that some
races have a definitely higher metabolism
and some a lower metabolism than that of
the Caucasian race.
It was early recognized that our infor-
mation regarding quantitative and quali-
tative aspects of the factors that go to
make up the total metabolism of man
could be supplemented by studies of the
metabolism of animals. The research on
152
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
undernutrition in man in 1917-1918 led cold-blooded ones. The investigation con-
to a study of the possibility of the sub- cerned its total metabolism, the qualitative
sistence of cattle on a submaintenance aspects of its metabolism, and its heat regu-
diet, followed by an investigation of the • lation during periods of normal activity, of
subsequent realimentation. In the latter going into hibernation, and of change from
part of 191 8 work was begun in coopera- the hibernating state to the state of normal
tion with Professor E. G. Ritzman, of activity. The basal metabolism and heat
the University of New Hampshire, on this regulation of the rabbit was extensively
problem in the study of the total metabo- studied; other animals investigated there
lism of undernourished steers. In 1922 were canaries, sparrows, wild rats, frizzled
similar work was done with fasting steers, fowl, and mice. The basal metabolism of
This cooperative effort proved most profit- the chimpanzee was studied at the Yale
able and was continued until 1938. Steers, Anthropoid Experiment Station, Orange
cows, horses, sheep, goats, and pigs were Park, Florida; that of the rhesus monkey,
used in research on the basal metabolism at the Department of Embryology of the
and the effect of food ingestion on total Carnegie Institution, in cooperation with
metabolism in both qualitative and quan- Dr. G. L. Streeter and Dr. C. G. Hart-
titative aspects, and on the effect of season, man; that of various races of doves and
of variations among breeds, and of ex- pigeons, in cooperation with Dr. O. C.
ternal environment. These researches have Riddle at the Department of Genetics of
been supplemented by studies on surface the Institution. An investigation on the
and internal body temperature under dif- total metabolism of a 4-ton elephant was
fering environmental conditions. supplemented by several researches on var-
Researches on the basal metabolism of a ious phases of the physiology of the ele-
great variety of animals have been con- phant, using single elephants and groups
ducted, usually covering a number of years, of elephants.
Rats were studied at Columbia University In all these investigations on the basal
in cooperation with Professor H. C. Sher- metabolism and the various factors af-
man and Professor Grace MacLeod, and fecting it, special stress was laid on the
at Yale University with Professor L. B. necessity for finding the point of thermic
Mendel. Studies at the New York Zoologi- neutrality— that is, the environmental
cal Park on wild animals in captivity in- temperature at which the metabolism was
eluded birds from the 600-gram bittern lowest — and on the complete absence of
to the 17-kilogram cassowary, and cold- muscular activity. These two factors have
blooded animals from the gopher tortoise not always been recognized in studies by
to the 132-kilogram tortoise as well as other investigators.
lizards, snakes, and pythons of various The total heat production of any animal
weights and sizes. At the Laboratory, valu- is, in general, made up from the combus-
able information was gained from a re- tion of the three groups of food corn-
search project on the woodchuck, which ponents, proteins, fats, and carbohydrates,
forms a link, so to speak, between the When these are burned in the body, each
warm-blooded and the cold-blooded ani- group produces a characteristic ratio be-
mals in that at various periods it is in a tween the volumes of carbon dioxide given
condition like that of warm-blooded ones, off and of oxygen consumed. This ratio
and during hibernation it simulates the is called the respiratory quotient. When
NUTRITION LABORATORY
153
the total respiratory exchange is known,
and the nitrogen in the urine due to the
destruction of protein is known, it is pos-
sible to compute the amounts of the three
substances burned in a given period. As
a contribution to our information regard-
ing the source of the substances furnish-
ing the fuels for combustion that make
up the total heat production, a knowl-
edge of the respiratory quotient is of the
utmost importance. The development of
the gas analysis apparatus in 1922 made
possible a more exact determination of
the respiratory quotient and of the vari-
ous factors affecting it in both animals
and man than had previously been feasible.
The finding, early in the studies with
the simple sugars, dextrose, levulose, and
galactose, into which the carbohydrates of
the diet are for the most part resolved
in digestion and absorption, that the re-
sponse of the respiratory quotient after
their ingestion by man differed widely,
led to an intensive study of the factors
that might cause these variations. The
finding by other workers that the response
of the respiratory quotient in rats seems
to differ widely from that in man led to a
series of studies by means of the open-
circuit apparatus and gas analysis on the
variations in the changes in the respira-
tory quotient after the ingestion of these
three sugars by various species of animals,
including the mouse, rat, canary, monkey,
goat, and cat. The results show that there
are wide variations in the metabolism of
carbohydrates with these three sugars,
both qualitatively and quantitatively. Al-
though animals in general burn carbohy-
drates, fats, and proteins as does man,
the manner in which these processes are
carried out, both qualitatively and quan-
titatively, differs widely in the different
species, so that it is not safe to transfer the
results from one species to another without
some qualifications.
The results of the various investiga-
tions of the Laboratory are presented in
35 monographs published by the Institu-
tion and in 414 articles that have appeared
in scientific journals.
Since the beginning of 1941 the purely
scientific activities of the Laboratory have
gradually lessened because of the partici-
pation of the members of the staff in war
researches.
STAFF NOTES
Mr. Robert C. Lee, a member of the
staff since January 1929, resigned August
31, 1944. Miss Elsie A. Wilson, since
September 1913 a member of the staff,
resigned November 30, 1944. Mr. George
Lee, a member of the staff since September
1929, resigned January 31, 1945. Mr.
George Lee was an expert gas analyst and
photographer. Mr. Robert C. Lee con-
ducted a large amount of experimental
work and in recent years contributed sub-
stantially to the published output of the
Laboratory. Miss Wilson has been of in-
estimable value as secretary and editor and
has aided very materially in the prepara-
tion of many manuscripts for publication.
Miss Evelyn Barenberg was employed as
secretary from November 20, 1944 to June
1, 1945.
The entire time of Mr. Robert C. Lee
and Mr. George Lee until they resigned
was employed in the war activities. Mr.
V. C. Coropatchinsky has been engaged
exclusively the entire year in the construc-
tion of newly developed apparatus for
the war researches. About a month of
Miss Wilson's time was spent on the
preparation of reports on the war activities.
On March 23, 1945, Dr. Carpenter gave
his annual lecture on basal metabolism
before students of the Harvard Medical
School.
154
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
LITERARY WORK
The following articles have been com-
pleted for publication in scientific journals:
"The basal metabolic rates of South
American Indians," by Elsie A. Wilson.
(Accepted for publication in the Hand-
book on the Indians of South America.)
"The respiratory quotient and blood
pyruvate and lactate responses after oral
ingestion of glucose and fructose in dia-
betes mellitus with and without insulin,"
by Howard F. Root, Elmer Stotz, and
Thorne M. Carpenter. (Accepted for pub-
lication in the American Journal of Med-
ical Sciences.)
"The effects of the dietary supply of
carbohydrate upon the response of the
human respiratory quotient after glucose
administration," by Howard F. Root and
Thorne M. Carpenter. (Accepted for pub-
lication in the Journal of Nutrition.)
"The respiratory quotients (R.Q.) of
diabetic subjects after meals," by Howard
F. Root and Thorne M. Carpenter.
PUBLICATIONS
(i) A new method for studying breathing with
observations upon normal and abnormal
subjects. Leslie Silverman, Robert C. Lee,
and Cecil K. Drinker with the coopera-
tion of Francis M. Rackemann. Jour.
Clin. Investig., vol. 23, pp. 907-913 (1944).
A new pneumotachograph^ device is de-
scribed for making a graphic record of the
velocity of air movement during inspiration
and expiration. The inspiratory and expira-
tory air currents cause the deflections of fine
wires, deflections that are recorded photo-
graphically by a moving paper camera.
Typical illustrations of the resulting curves
are presented, showing the results on one
normal individual and on five patients with
respiratory difficulties. The total minute
volume and the instantaneous air flow can
be obtained from the records made by the
instrument.
(2) The effects of glucose, fructose, and galactose
on the respiratory exchange of the goat.
Ernest G. Ritzman and Thorne M. Car-
penter. Jour. Nutrition, vol. 28, pp. 71-79
(1944).
The respiratory exchanges of four male and
five female adult goats were determined 40
hours after withdrawal from food (1) under
basal conditions and (2) in eight successive
^-hour periods after the administration by
stomach tube of 250 ml. of water at 370— 38 °
C, or of 25 gm. of glucose, fructose, or galac-
tose dissolved in 125 ml. of water and an addi-
tional 125 ml. of water for rinsing. Water pro-
duced a slight but somewhat delayed in-,
crease in the R.Q. Fructose caused the great-
est increase in the R.Q. and the greatest in-
crease in the metabolism of carbohydrates.
Glucose was next in these effects, and galac-
tose had the least effects. Qualitatively these
results much resemble those found with man
with these sugars. There was evidence of a
slight amount of fermentation after the in-
gestion of galactose and of fructose by the
goats.
(3) The effects of sugars on the respiratory ex-
change of cats. Thorne M. Carpenter.
Jour. Nutrition, vol. 28, pp. 315-323
(1944).
The respiratory exchange was measured in
successive ^-hour periods for 4 hours with
five cats in the basal state, after ingestion of
75 ml. of water, after ingestion of 10 gm.
of glucose, fructose, galactose, sucrose, mal-
tose, or lactose, and after ingestion of a com-
bination of 5 gm. each of glucose and fructose
or of glucose and galactose. The values of
the basal R.Q. were uniform, for the most
part, and did not show a marked tendency to
change during the eight ^-hour periods of
measurement. The ingestion of water resulted
in a rise in R.Q. with one cat for the entire
4 hours, but with the other cats only in the
first J-hour period. Glucose caused the great-
NUTRITION LABORATORY Xrr
est rise in R.Q., and the peak occurred in the often higher or lower than the normal stand-
sixth and seventh ^-hour periods. All the ards for the white population in the United
other sugars, disaccharides as well as mono- States. Many investigators believe that these
saccharides, caused definite rises in the R.Q. differences are ascribable to race and that
On the assumption that in the control experi- this factor must be considered in addition to
ments with water only fat and protein were age, weight, height, and sex. Other investi-
metabolized and that in the experiments with gators claim that race plays no role, but that
the sugars the protein metabolism of a given the deviations from the normal standards for
cat was the same as its average protein North American whites can be explained by
metabolism in the experiments with water, differences in nutritive condition, climate,
it was calculated that the metabolism of car- and other factors.
bohydrates was highest after glucose and This review of the literature on the basal
lower after galactose and fructose in the order metabolism of different human races discusses
named. The cats were able to metabolize these conflicting opinions and points out the
the disaccharides nearly as well as would be many different conditions entering into the
expected, in view of their constituent mono- measurements that make it difficult to decide
saccharides formed by hydrolysis. When whether race itself is or is not a factor in
combinations of hexoses equivalent to 10 gm. basal metabolism. Among these are differ-
of sucrose or lactose were ingested, the re- ences in physical activity and degree of mus-
sultant metabolism of carbohydrates was cular relaxation, differences in body size and
greater than would be expected from the body configuration, differences in diet, differ-
sum of the amounts metabolized after in- ences in climate and seasons of the year, and
gestion of the respective hexoses given sepa- differences in anthropological and constitu-
rately. Cats resemble men in the metabolism tional types. Another complication is that
of the monosaccharides in that they show the normal standards of basal metabolism are
increases in R.Q. and in carbohydrate commonly related to body size, particularly
metabolism after ingestion of these sugars, the surface area of the body, and the formula
but they differ from men in that the peak for calculating this area worked out for
does not occur so promptly and, qualitatively, whites may not necessarily apply to all races,
the order of magnitude of the effect is not Moreover, different methods have been used
the same. in measuring the basal metabolism of the
various races studied, instead of one and the
(4) Basal metabolism from the standpoint of same method
racial anthropology. Elsie A. Wilson. a 1 1 • c 1 1
A T Tii » 1 1 1 -A tabular summary is given or the results
Amer. Jour. Phys. AnthropoL, n. s., vol. 3, r . ... . . . . . . .
/ \ or those racial investigations in which basal
metabolic rates above the normal American
From many hundreds of metabolism meas- standards have been found. Another sum-
urements on normal men, women, and mary is given of the results of those investiga-
children of the white population of the United tions in which minus values of more than
States, average values or normal standards of 10 per cent have been found, and still a third
basal metabolism have been derived showing summary of the results of racial studies made
the energy needs of normal people. These between 1940 and 1942.
normal standards vary, depending on age, One of the striking findings is that most
weight, height, and sex. When other racial of the groups having basal energy needs
groups besides North American whites were distinctly higher than the standards for
studied, for example Chinese students in the normal whites belong to the Mongolian race.
United States, Maya Indians of Yucatan, and These groups include Eskimos and American
various races in South America, India, Aus- Indians.
tralia, and other parts of the world, it was From this survey it is evident that so many
discovered that their basal energy needs were different factors may play concurrent roles in
156
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
affecting the basal metabolism that it is im-
possible at the present time to say whether
the different basal metabolic levels noted for
the various races thus far studied are reflec-
tions of a racial characteristic or are the re-
sults of a combination of some or all of the
factors mentioned. The desirability of fur-
ther studies on different races with the use of
the same technique of measurement in all
cases is urged, to rule out the factor of dif-
ference in technique. The suggestion is
made that sufficient measurements be made
to establish a normal standard for each
individual race, based on measurements of
normal individuals of the race in their
native country. When such standards have
been established for many different races,
a comparison of these with the present-day
American and European standards should
throw more light on the role played by race
in basal metabolism.
(5) The respiratory quotient and blood pyruvate
and lactate after ingestion of glucose or
fructose by diabetic patients. Thorne M.
Carpenter, Howard F. Root, and Elmer
Stotz. Federation Proc, vol. 4, pp. 152-
153 (i945)-
A preliminary communication of results
to be published in full subsequently.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Carpenter, Thorne M. The effects of sugars
on the respiratory exchange of cats. Jour.
Nutrition, vol. 28, pp. 3i5"323 (I944)«
Howard F. Root, and Elmer Stotz.
The respiratory quotient and blood pyruvate
and lactate after ingestion of glucose or
fructose by diabetic patients. Federation
Proc, vol. 4, pp. 152-153 (i945)-
See Ritzman, Ernest G.
Drinker, Cecil K. See Silverman, Leslie.
Lee, Robert C. See Silverman, Leslie.
Rackemann, Francis M. See Silverman, Leslie.
Ritzman, Ernest G., and Thorne M. Carpen-
ter. The effects of glucose, fructose, and
galactose on the respiratory exchange of the
goat. Jour. Nutrition, vol. 28, pp. 71-79
(1944).
Root, Howard F. See Carpenter, Thorne M.
Silverman, Leslie, Robert C. Lee, and Cecil K.
Drinker, with the cooperation of Francis
M. Rackemann. A new method for study-
ing breathing with observations upon normal
and abnormal subjects. Jour. Clin. Investig.,
vol. 23, pp. 907-913 (1944).
Stotz, Elmer. See Carpenter, Thorne M.
Wilson, Elsie A. Basal metabolism from the
standpoint of racial anthropology. Amer.
Jour. Phys. Anthropol., n. s., vol. 3, pp. 1-
19 (1945)-
SPECIAL PROJECTS: BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
T. H. Morgan, Alfred H. Sturtevant, and Lilian V. Morgan, California Institute of
Technology, Pasadena, California. Maintenance of a Drosophila stoc\ center, in
connection with investigations on the constitution of the germinal material in re-
lation to heredity. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 15 to 43.)
The results of the work of A. H. Sturte-
vant on chromosome types of Drosophila
melanogaster are reported as follows:
The fourth chromosome of Drosophila
melanogaster is usually given as 0.2 units
long. This value is evidently too high;
there is probably less than 0.05 per cent
crossing over between any of the known
loci. When linkage experiments are car-
ried out, it often happens that the design
is such that nondisjunction will simulate
TABLE 1
Crossing over in diplo-IV triploid females
of Drosophila melanogaster
Loci
Total no. flies
No. crossovers
Percentage
gvl ey
gvl sv
ci ey
ci sv
1513
680
965
158
40
22
15
7
2.6
3.2
1.6
4.4
crossing over, and this confusion has prob-
ably led to the value usually given.
Recent experiments have, however,
shown that crossing over in this chromo-
some is greatly increased in triploid fe-
males, as shown in table 1. Most triploid
strains carry only two fourth chromosomes,
and the data were derived from such
females. Crossing over in triplo-IV trip-
loids is more difficult to analyze, and, there-
fore, few counts have been made from
them; a few crossovers were, however,
present in the small numbers obtained.
These experiments have resulted in the
production of three new multiple stocks,
that are of value in studies on this chromo-
some: gvl sv11, ci svn, and gvl svn eyR. It
should be added that the two latter are
inconvenient to work with, owing to an
unexplained high incidence of male
sterility.
The construction of a crossing-over map
has encountered an unexpected difficulty,
namely, that the data indicate that some
of the crossovers obtained have resulted
from double crossing over. This is so un-
expected, for a section showing so little
total crossing over, that the result must be
thoroughly checked before any confidence
can be placed in it. All that can be said
at present is that most of the observed
crossing over occurs in an interval lying
between the loci of gvl and ci on the one
hand, and those of sv and ey on the other,
but that occasional crossovers also occur
between the members of each of these two
pairs of loci.
These studies are being continued and
the preference properties of the crossover
chromosomes are also being determined.
Dr. K. W. Cooper, of Princeton Univer-
sity, has carried out studies, partly in this
laboratory, on the effects of inversions on
crossing over and chromosome disjunc-
tion. Some of the data are in press, and
other experiments are still in progress.
These studies,, like those on preference
properties of fourth chromosomes, are
aimed at throwing light on the mechanics
of chromosome behavior — a field that has
recently been somewhat neglected by
geneticists, but in which the material avail-
able in Drosophila melanogaster makes it
157
158
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
possible to carry out critical tests with a
precision and efficiency nowhere else at-
tainable.
The fourth-chromosome recessive char-
acter sparkling (spa), described in the re-
port of i 942-1943, has been further studied
by L. V. Morgan in experiments designed
to test the correlation between the mani-
festation of spa and relative amounts of
heterochromatin and euchromatin.
Spa is manifested primarily by rough-
ness and brightness of the eye and by
other conditions such as shape and con-
vexity. Roughness seems to be in part
due to irregularity in the rows of omma-
tidia, which sometimes vary in size.
In order to facilitate comparison of dif-
ferent degrees of spa, an arbitrary scale of
7 grades was chosen. An eye of grade 6
is exceedingly rough, has no fleck, and is
often bulging, round, and small. In grade
1 roughness is very slight, sometimes not
involving all of the eye, sometimes dis-
cernible only in certain positions in relation
to the source of light; it scarcely differs
from grade 0 or "smooth." Grade 2 is
evidently spa. When feasible, one parent
in the mating was heterozygous for spa
and for its wild-type allelomorph in a
chromosome marked by the dominant
wing mutant cubitus interruptus dominant
(ciD). Thus homozygous spa eyes could
be compared in the same conditions
directly with wild-type eyes, which some-
times are of a granular texture rather than
entirely smooth. As there is no actual
division between grades, the classification
of borderline cases varies. For this reason
and because spa is probably sensitive to
genetic modifiers, the controls were present
whenever possible in the same culture in
which spa was rated, or sibs were used as
Pi flies.
Temperature affects the grade of spa,
which is enhanced when the flies are raised
at 1 7-1 90 C, the range chosen for the
experiments. When first found, spa was
raised at room temperature. In extracted
homozygous flies spa was easily seen in
females, but did not show in males. Raised
at 190, females were of higher grades and
males showed low grades of spa.
Females have been found to be of higher
grades than their brothers in every experi-
ment in which the females were XX and
the males were XY (possibly excepting
flies carrying a deficiency for chromo-
some 2). But females carrying normal
X's and also a Y chromosome do not
show spa as observed in the regular class
of attached-X females which are XXY.
Their exceptional XXO sisters are spa
and of higher grades than are the regular
XY males. Sons of XXO females which
are XO males show the highest grades
of spa (6 and 5), exceeding even the
grades of the few XXO females found in
the same stocks of flies. These observa-
tions show a lowering of the grade of spa
in the presence of a Y chromosome.
A correlation has also been found be-
tween the presence of differing amounts
of heterochromatin in the X and the
expression of spa. The X deficient for
X heterochromatin and for the locus of
bobbed found by Gershenson (Df G)
was used (symbol X-). The grades of
offspring of females heterozygous for X
and X- mated to XY males are recorded
in table 2 under A. Both females and
males deficient in X heterochromatin are
of higher grades than are the correspond-
ing flies carrying the normal X's.
In another class of females (X~X"Y)
which carried two deficient X's and a Y
chromosome, there were smooth-eyed flies
and flies of grade 1 (table 2 under B).
This indicates that two X deficiencies have
an effect on spa which is opposite to and
nearly balances the effect of Y. An extra
SPECIAL PROJECTS: BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
159
Y in a deficient male (X"YY) suppresses
spa as seen in the males of the class that
had received a Y from each parent. The
result is similar to the suppression of spa
by Y in XXY and XY as compared with
XXO ancTXO.
There are other examples of effects on
spa of different amounts of heterochro-
matin in the X and the Y chromosomes.
An X chromosome known as bobbed lethal
{bb1) is probably deficient for the locus
TABLE 2
Number of flies of different grades of spa
(X- stands for deficient X of Gershenson)
0
1
2
3
4
5
A. Grades of spa in offspring of X~X by XY
WITH AND WITHOUT X~
X"X
16
38
29
X"Y
49
55
XX
13
33
52
14
3
XY
70
8
B. Grades of spa in offspring of X X Y by X~Y
X-X-Y.
X"Y...
X"YY.
42
48
2
2
33
43
13
3
64
of bb, and an X chromosome found by
Dobzhansky (Df D) is deficient for the
locus of bb and for a heterochromatic
region. Each of these showed an effect on
spa in XX" females and in XY males.
The females showed spa to a high degree
and the males were only slightly spa. The
grades were not rated by the scale, but in
comparisons made at long intervals of
stocks of the three deficiencies, Df G
appeared to be the most effective in en-
hancing spa, and bb1 the least effective.
The stocks were unrelated, so there were
no checks on modifiers except ciD , which
was present in some instances.
In X"X~Y females that carried Df D,
spa was less evident even than in corre-
sponding Df G females, which are of low
grade. When a normal X is present in
place of one deficient X, the females
(X"XY) carrying either deficiency do not
show spa, though XX females are of high
grades.
When a deficient Y, known as Y sterile
(Yst), which is probably the long arm of
Y, is combined with bb1 deficiency in
X"X~Yst females, spa is of a high order.
Another Y, "Y bobbed deficiency" (Yb&"),
is deficient for bb and for about one-third
of the short arm of Y, but males carrying
it are fertile. It has less effect on the sup-
pression of spa than has a normal Y. In
attached-X females that are XXYbb~, spa
is evident, and XY&&_ males are even more
spa than the females, but less spa than are
XO males.
It was found further that duplication
of X heterochromatin has an effect op-
posite to that of a deficiency and in the
direction of the effect of Y. Flies carry-
ing a largely heterochromatic fragment
of X, Dp(i ;f) 101, in addition to the normal
complement of X, produced smooth dupli-
cation males (XXDpY) and XY males
which were slightly spa; and 84 per cent
of XX females were of grades 4 and 3,
while 82 per cent of the females carrying
the duplication (XXXDp) were of the
lower grades 2 and 1, although a common
effect of duplication is slight roughening
of the eyes.
Another deficiency for heterochromatin,
Df(2)M-Sio, was tested. It is a deficiency
for a heterochromatic region of the right
arm of chromosome 2, which produces a
dominant mutant effect (M) and is lethal
when homozygous. The Minute offspring
(M) of flies heterozygous for the deficiency
are conspicuously more spa than are their
normal sibs. This is true especially of the
:6o
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
males, which run into the highest grades
as do the females. Of the not-M offspring,
lower in grade, the males are less spa than
the females.
The effect on the fourth-chromosome
character spa of the presence of different
amounts of heterochromatin is in agree-
ment with the effect of heterochromatin
on variegations in other chromosomes
which has been described by Schultz. The
experiments with spa give consistent re-
sults in the sense that when heterochro-
matin of X or of Y is increased, the mani-
festation of spa is diminished, and when
heterochromatin of X, Y, or 2R is de-
creased, spa is enhanced.
H. C. Sherman, Columbia University, New York, New York. Research on influ-
ence of nutrition upon the chemical composition of the normal body. (For
previous reports on this and directly preceding researches, see Year Books Nos.
32 to 41 and 43.)
The fact that a normal bodily chemistry beings, and enough faster so that they
may yet be improved by a more scientific complete their normal life cycles in about
adjustment of the nutritional intake has
opened a far-reaching field of research
into the effects of food upon life processes
and life histories. The present research
one-thirtieth of the time. Rat families in
our laboratory colony are now thriving
in the sixtieth generation on our basal
diet A, which in the sense here described
deals, as has been briefly explained in pre- is already adequate, yet capable of im-
vious reports, with the effects of such provement at more than one point, as
nutritional improvements. These are in- doubtless are the dietaries on which a
duced in some cases by adjustments of large proportion of people are living,
the quantitative proportions of natural Hence such study of the influence of
foods in the diet, and in other cases by food — upon the bodily chemistry and re-
enrichment of the diet with chemically sultant nutritional well-being and life his-
individual nutrients. tory — holds much of significance for the
By the former method we found that a correlation of chemical composition and
diet already adequate in the sense that it biological function, and for important hu-
supports normal growth, health, and life man implications.
histories through successive generations Our experiments with calcium as the
can yet be so improved as to better the sole variable factor were summarized
average status in each part of the life cycle, briefly in our report of 1 940-1 941 and more
Our subsequent experiments with indi- fully in the journal articles there recorded
vidual nutrients indicate that calcium, vita-
min A, riboflavin, and protein each plays
a part in the enhancement of an already
normal status of nutritional well-being,
(Year Book No. 40, pp. 287-288).
At that time and in the following year
(Year Book No. 41, pp. 245-246) progress
reports were made upon our analogous
with resultant improvement in the plane experiments with vitamin A, the data of
of positive health, and the average length some of which are now being prepared
of life. Rats are the experimental animals for journal publication. These experiments
used in this work because, in all aspects are showing that a moderate surplus of
of the nutritional chemistry with which vitamin A in the daily diet is even more
we are here concerned, their processes run potent than previously supposed in the
strikingly parallel with those of human support of bodily reserves of this nutrient
SPECIAL PROJECTS: BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
161
at all ages up to at least middle life. More-
over, in families thus fed through suc-
cessive generations, growth is stabilized
and the period of full adult vigor appears,
in the experiments thus far completed, to
have been extended. We hope to carry
these experiments into larger numbers at
the higher levels of nutritional intake and
the more advanced ages.
Our experimental studies of the influ-
ence upon body composition of different
liberal levels of nutritional intake of ribo-
flavin, both as sole variable and in con-
junction with different levels of food pro-
tein, are being continued. As was noted
in last year's report, our work with ribo-
flavin as sole variable yields a general
picture of a riboflavin content of body
tissue which varies with the nutritional
intake at relatively low levels, whereas at
higher levels of intake the concentration
of riboflavin in the tissue reaches a "pla-
teau" and thereafter remains essentially
constant with further increase of riboflavin
intake. This plateau level of riboflavin
content of body appears, however, to be
influenced by the protein content of the
diet, consistently with the theory that ribo-
flavin in body tissues exists largely in com-
bination with protein. Thus in a series of
five comparisons of the body concentra-
tions of riboflavin and total nitrogenous
compounds (quantitatively an essential
measure of protein content) in rats that
had been fed diets of the same liberal
riboflavin content but with 12 per cent
and 32 per cent, respectively, of protein,
it was found that in every case the animal
receiving food of higher protein content
showed a higher body content of both pro-
tein and riboflavin. The average results
were: in animals from diet with 12 per
cent protein, 5.70 micrograms of riboflavin
per gram, and 16.95 Per cent °f protein
in the body; and in animals from diet
with 32 per cent protein, 6.63 micrograms
of riboflavin, and 18.42 per cent of body
protein. Such differences, of the order of
one-tenth, in the amounts of these active
factors of the life process in the body
tissues clearly suggest that science is here
developing a previously unappreciated po-
tentiality for the modification of life
processes and thus of life histories through
nutritionally guided use of food. The
quantitative investigation of these rela-
tionships is complicated by the fact that
the difference of nutritional intake influ-
ences the amount of fatty and fatlike
substances formed and retained in the
body. This is consistent with the oxida-
tion-enzyme nature of the riboflavin-pro-
tein compound. Thus the situation de-
serves fuller experimental study, both as
to its scope from the standpoint of sys-
tematically varied levels of the active fac-
tors fed and as to the extension of such
feeding experiments to cover longer seg-
ments of the life histories. For such ex-
periments the animals of our laboratory-
bred colony, having known nutritional
backgrounds for many generations, offer
special advantages for conclusiveness of
interpretation in the direct comparison of
diets and also for the solution of the prob-
lem of how far so-called adaptation to
suboptimal food supply is a factor in
responsiveness to better feeding.
The generous and efficient service of
those who have collaborated in the
work here reported, whether as research
assistants or as volunteers, is gratefully
acknowledged.
14
DIVISION OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH
Cambridge, Massachusetts
A. V. KIDDER, Chairman
Now that the war is over, several mem- Mrs. Morris, who possessed great abilities
bers of the staff who have been serving in as a writer and an artist, was entrusted by
the armed services or in other forms of war her husband, Earl H. Morris, with the
work are expected soon to return, and it is copying of the extremely important fres-
hoped that in the near future some at least coes discovered by him during the exca-
of the interrupted activities of the Division vation of the Temple of the Warriors at
may be resumed. Indeed, during the past Chichen Itza, and was co-author of the
year it has been possible to undertake a
limited amount of archaeological and
ethnological field work. Most staff mem-
bers not in service, however, have devoted
monograph on that building. In later years
she assisted Dr. Morris on his many ex-
peditions in Arizona and New Mexico,
making a specialty of the recording and
themselves to the writing of reports. As a stu^y oi pictographs. Her two books,
result, the Division's investigations have Digging in the Southwest and Digging in
been brought nearer to the stage of defini- Yucatan, which have had a large sale that
tive publication than at any previous time, still continues, have done much to acquaint
Dr. Leo F. Stock retired July 31, 1945, the public with the methods and aims of
after thirty-five years of service with the archaeology.
Department and Division of Historical Dr. Vaillant, formerly with the Ameri-
Research. A member of the group of dis-
tinguished scholars brought to the Depart-
ment by Dr. J. Franklin Jameson, Dr.
Stock has centered his research on the
debates in the British Parliament regard-
ing North America. His five volumes on
this subject not only throw much factual
light on events of the period treated, but
also make clear the slow development of
democratic processes in dealing with co-
lonial possessions. They form a necessary
introduction to the legislative history of
the United States after its independence. A
former president of the American Catholic
Historical Association, Dr. Stock has been
a valued agent of liaison between the In-
can Museum of Natural History and at
the time of his death Director of the Mu-
seum of the University of Pennsylvania,
was a member of Dr. Morley's staff at
Chichen Itza in 1926. During that season
he excavated the Temple of the Initial
Series and, at the Temple of the Phalli
and elsewhere, made stratigraphic studies
which laid the foundation for subsequent
ceramic research in Yucatan by H. B.
Roberts and G. W. Brainerd. Dr. Var-
iant's work for the American Museum on
the early cultures of Mexico was a brilliant
scientific achievement, and, like Mrs. Mor-
ris' books, his Aztecs of Mexico has done
much to promote an intelligent interest
stitution and the very effective Catholic in archaeology. Throughout his career he
historical organizations and institutions. kept closely in touch with the Division's
With great regret we record the pass- work, giving freely of his time to visit our
ing of two persons formerly connected excavations and advise with us as to prob-
with the Division, Ann Axtell Morris and lems of mutual interest.
George Clapp Vaillant.
i63
164
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
ACTIVITIES, 1944-1945
Major H. E. D. Pollock, after three
years with the photographic division of
the Air Corps in North Africa and Italy,
returned late in 1944 for duty in Wash-
ington, and has recently been accorded
inactive status. He will resume his studies
of Maya architecture in the autumn of
1945. Mr. Gustav Stromsvik enlisted in
1943 in the Royal Norwegian Navy. He
served on the North Atlantic convoys,
took part in the invasion of Normandy,
and, since the landings there, has held an
administrative position at Norwegian head-
quarters in Edinburgh. He has recently
been discharged. Mr. Karl Ruppert, volun-
teer in the American Field Service, was
with the British Army during the Burma
campaign and later in Italy. In the spring
of 1945 his unit was transferred to north-
ern Europe, where it was engaged until
the end of hostilities in the evacuation of
wounded and in helping to clear captured
concentration camps. He has now resumed
his position with the Division. Dr. G. W.
Brainerd, who holds the rank of lieutenant
in the Naval Reserve, is attached to the
Special Devices Division of the Office of
Research and Invention. His duties have
taken him to India, Ceylon, and China.
Miss Eleanor W. Ritchie, secretary of the
Division, is a lieutenant (j.g.) in the Naval
Reserve, on duty in Washington.
In civilian capacities, several members
have taken part in the war effort. Mr.
E. M. Shook is in charge of the large qui-
nine plantation of El Porvenir in Guate-
mala. In the course of this work he has
been able, as in past years, to make valu-
able observations on sites in a region
hitherto very little known archaeologically
and to obtain photographs of monuments
and of objects in private collections. Dr.
A. M. Halpern has continued as director
of the language program in the Civil
Affairs Training School at the University
of Chicago. Dr. R. S. Chamberlain, senior
cultural assistant in the United States
Embassy in Guatemala, has had oppor-
tunity, during his four years at that post,
to foster the close international intellectual
relations which, we believe, have been a
not unimportant by-product of the Divi-
sion's more than three decades of activity
in Mexico and Central America. He ex-
pects to resume his historical studies in
the near future. Mr. F. B. Richardson, in
1944 legal attache at the Embassy in Ecua-
dor, attended the conference at San Fran-
cisco as adviser on Latin American affairs.
Dr. S. G. Morley spent the winter in
Yucatan, continuing his research on the
Maya hieroglyphs. He has been in con-
stant touch with Sr. Alfredo Barrera Vas-
quez, whose translation and correlation of
variant historical and ceremonial Maya
texts — the so-called Books of Chilam Ba-
lam — were carried on in 1 943-1 944 under a
grant from the Rockefeller Foundation
administered, at the Foundation's request,
by Carnegie Institution. Mr. R. E. Smith
continues in charge of the Division's office
in Guatemala City. During the past win-
ter he was informed that road work at
Coban in Alta Verapaz had exposed a
prehistoric midden. This he excavated,
recovering a large collection of clay figu-
rines and pottery fragments, many of the
latter of a very beautiful incised ware of
which only a few pieces had previously
been known. Mr. Smith has also devoted
much time to the installation of the
archaeological collections in the Guatemala
National Museum, which, under the di-
rectorship of Sr. Flavio Rodas, is being
transferred to new and larger quarters.
As chairman of the advisory committee
on the museum, he has been assisted by
DIVISION OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH
l65
Sr. Antonio Tejeda, artist of the Division, to give Srs. Tejeda and Rosales and such
and Sr. Antonio Goubaud. aid in acquiring academic training as it has
Sr. Tejeda continues to produce meticu- been able to procure for them and for Srs.
lously accurate and beautiful paintings of Alfonso Villa and Antonio Goubaud —
Maya pottery. Although only a relatively largely through the generous and ready
small proportion of these can at present cooperation of the Rockefeller Foundation
be used as illustrations in the Division's — is believed to be a most valuable contri-
publications, it has been our policy to have bution to the development of anthropology
such reproductions made of all important in Latin America, for although North
pieces from our own excavations and of American students can accomplish a cer-
those in museums and in private hands, tain amount of useful research, the major
The archive thus being built up will be work must eventually be done by natives
of very great value to students who cannot of the countries themselves, as it now is in
see the material itself. It also serves as Mexico by the able group headed by Dr.
insurance against loss of the originals Alfonso Caso.
through dispersal of private collections or, During the past winter Mr. A. L. Smith
in the case of museums, through destruc- and Sr. Cesar Tejeda made a survey of
tion by earthquake, an ever present danger sites in the northwestern Guatemala high-
in the Central American republics. This lands that are thought to date from late
year Sr. Tejeda has been working on Mr. prehistoric times. Srs. Goubaud and Ro-
Smith's Alta Verapaz pottery; on pieces sales, in the early months of 1945, corn-
in the Dieseldorfif collection, now the prop- pleted the collection of data regarding food
erty of the National Museum; and on habits and food consumption of the Gua-
vessels recovered by Mr. S. H. Boggs in temala Indians and Ladinos. Dr. Kirk
El Salvador. Bryan, professor of geology at Harvard
Sr. Tejeda's younger brother, Cesar, first University, spent two weeks in Guatemala
employed in 1942 as assistant to Mr. Shook studying physiographic conditions bearing
at Kaminaljuyu, developed great ability upon the antiquity of human occupancy
in mending and restoring pottery. During of that country. Reports on these investi-
his work as preparator and in the field gations and on the ethnological work are
with Mr. Shook and Mr. A. L. Smith, he appended. The Chairman was in Guate-
showed outstanding promise as an archae- mala during January and February for
ologist. When this was brought to the at- consultation with government authorities
tention of the authorities, he was granted as to future undertakings. He also had
a government fellowship for attendance opportunity to work in the Division office
at the Escuela Nacional de Antropologia on archaeological collections made in
in Mexico City, where he has now matricu- former years. Temporarily unsettled polit-
lated. A fellowship was also given to Sr. ical conditions prevented his visiting Mr.
Juan de Dios Rosales, for several years S. H. Boggs' excavations at Tazumal in
assistant to the late Dr. Manuel Andrade eastern El Salvador, which are being car-
and to Drs. Redfield and Tax in their ried on by the Salvadorean government,
respective linguistic and ethnological in- and for which Carnegie Institution has
vestigations and, more recently, to Sr. provided modest financial aid for the pros-
Goubaud in the food survey. Such field ecution of certain stratigraphic studies,
experience as the Division has been able The Chairman later went to Boulder,
i66
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
Colorado, to confer with Drs. E. H. Mor-
ris and Anna O. Shepard regarding their
work on Southwestern archaeology and
ceramic technology; and to Albuquerque,
New Mexico, to confer with Dr. F. V.
Scholes. In California, he studied collec-
tions at Los Angeles and Berkeley.
At Cambridge, Mr. J. E. S. Thompson
has begun the preparation of a compre-
hensive monograph on the Maya hiero-
glyphic writing. A report on certain aspects
of this study appears below. Mr. Thomp-
son has been awarded the Rivers Memorial
Medal by Cambridge University for his
contributions to Maya research. Miss Ta-
tiana Proskouriakoff has begun a detailed
analysis of dated Maya sculptures. This
will not only lay a foundation for studies
of other aspects of Maya art, but provide
more reliable stylistic criteria than have
hitherto been available for the dating of
the many monuments which bear either
no dates or illegible ones. Mrs. W. H.
Harrison, in addition to her manifold du-
ties as editor of the Division, has been com-
piling a dictionary of terms applicable to
Middle American archaeology. This should
serve to standardize usage and clarify
nomenclature. Her report on publications
also appears below, as do those of Dr.
L. F. Stock on his work in United States
history and of Dr. George Sarton on the
history of science. The report on Kami-
naljuyu by the Chairman, Dr. J. D. Jen-
nings, and Mr. Shook has been finished
and is now in press. In the field of Maya
history, Dr. Scholes and Mr. R. L. Roys
have continued the writing of their report
on the Acalan-Tixchel area. Dr. Scholes
and Miss Eleanor B. Adams, who now
make their headquarters at Albuquerque,
have been provided with quarters and
given every facility for the prosecution of
their work by the University of New
Mexico.
Guatemala Highlands Project
A. L. Smith
During the winter of 1 944-1 945, Mr.
A. L. Smith, assisted by Sr. Cesar Tejeda,
spent four months in archaeological re-
connaissance in the departments of Hue-
huetenango and El Quiche. The purpose
of the work was to obtain as much in-
formation as possible, without intensive
excavation, as to both hilltop and valley
sites with a view to selecting representative
examples of each type for future excava-
tion. All sites were mapped, architectural
details were recorded by drawings and
photographs, and samples of pottery were
recovered from inside or below construc-
tions as well as from the surface. Special
effort was made to locate refuse dumps.
The trip was made in the Institution's
station wagon, and local labor was em-
ployed. The hiring of workmen was
greatly facilitated by the cooperation of
the Minister of Public Education, the
governors of departments, and the mayors
of the towns and villages visited. Seven-
teen sites were examined, some large and
some small, all within fairly easy access
of a main highway.
Huehuetenango, capital of the Depart-
ment of Huehuetenango, was the first
base used. In this region seven sites were
investigated: Zaculeu, Cambote, Chicol,
Piol, Xetenan, Cucal, and Pucal. Of these,
Zaculeu, a fortified site surrounded by
barrancas on three sides, proved to be by
far the largest and most interesting. It
lies about 4 km. northeast of Huehuete-
nango. Considerable excavation has been
carried on here in the past, the Guatemalan
government in 1927 having excavated and
partially restored the principal mound, a
large pyramid surmounted by a temple.
About ten days were spent at Zaculeu in
recording materials for restored drawings
of several buildings and a ball court. A
DIVISION OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH
167
large collection of potsherds was also made, four round columns, one off each corner,
Cambote, directly south of Zaculeu and in and a later construction of four walls with
plain view therefrom, rests on a tongue stepped tops. There is much pottery of
of land but is not so well protected as all periods at Chalchitan. Xolchun, east
Zaculeu. Very little masonry was showing of Chalchitan, is a good-sized hilltop site,
here, and there was no ball court. Chicol, Its main features are a well preserved ball
Piol, and Xetenan are all small hilltop sites court, terracing, block masonry, and a type
practically surrounded by barrancas. All of late pottery with white geometric de-
three have ball courts. Cucal is a small sign on a red slip. Chichoche is a small
valley site without a ball court. At Pucal, a group of mounds in sight of Xolchun
small hilltop site near Cucal, only one across the barranca to the southeast,
mound remains, but there is evidence that Sacapulas, a village in the Department of
there were several others which had been El Quiche about 37 km. east of Aguacatan,
leveled for agricultural purposes, the stones was the last place used as a base. From
being used in the building of modern here the ruins of Chutix Tiox, Chutinamit,
fences. Pacot, Xolchun, Rio Blanco, and Xecataloj
The next base of operations was the were studied. The best preserved of these
village of Aguacatan, about 26 km. east is Chutix Tiox, a hilltop site extremely
of Huehuetenango in the Department of well protected against attack, its only en-
Huehuetenango, where a month was spent trance being blocked by a wall. The main
investigating Huitchun, Chalchitan, Xol- group is on a high terrace with stairways
chun, and Chichoche. Huitchun, some- on all sides. An interesting feature is a
times called Chichun, rests on a low hill stucco jaguar in a crouching position at
just west of the village. It is a small group the base of one of the several platforms,
surrounding a court and has a ball court. It was possible to take measurements of
Chalchitan, one of the largest sites visited, almost all the buildings. Chutix Tiox is
and the one to which most of the month's similar to Xolchun in that it has the same
work was devoted, lies in the valley just kind of ball court, a great deal of terracing,
east of the village. Unfortunately a great and the same white-on-red pottery. Chu-
many of the mounds had been dug into tinamit, just outside Sacapulas, is another
by treasure hunters, causing much damage well protected hilltop site, almost corn-
to inner constructions. There is still much pletely surrounded by barrancas. Its only
left, however. One of the two ball courts entrance, on a narrow neck of land to the
was excavated and found to cover an north, was protected by three parallel walls
earlier ball court, within which there was stretching from barranca to barranca. Pa-
evidence of still earlier construction. Two cot, also almost inaccessible, is small, but
nicely carved stone heads, one of a serpent the buildings are well preserved. Xolchun,
and the other of a jaguar, were recovered not to be confused with the Xolchun in
from high up in the center of the playing the Department of Huehuetenango, lies
walls of the earlier ball court. A tomb on the tongue of land formed by the
with a corbeled vault was discovered in junction of the Rio Blanco and the Rio
one of the largest mounds. This had been Negro. A stela, used as the capstone of a
looted years ago. Probably the most in- tomb, was found in a small temple. Its
teresting find was a building showing six upper part bore a well carved geometric
distinct architectural phases, the most in- design. A most unusual structure was an
structive of which were a platform with oval, almost circular, platform with seven
r68 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
terraces. Rio Blanco, a small valley site, in Guatemala studying recent deposits in
shows several periods of construction, and the neighborhood of Guatemala City and
the types of pottery found there indicate in the Motagua Valley. He also made a
a long occupancy. Among the wares noted short trip to Lake Atitlan and Chichi-
were plumbate and Utatlan. Xecataloj is castenango in order to acquaint himself
a small valley group on the north bank with the more westerly highlands and ash
of the Rio Negro about 1.5 km. east of basins.
Sacapulas. The city of Guatemala is built in a wide
It would appear that the well protected valley dissected by broad, deep gulches
hilltop sites are later than the more vulner- (barrancas) and bounded by hills and
able valley sites. Before definite conclu- mountains. It lies in the divide between
sions are reached, however, the collections drainage to the Pacific and drainage to
of potsherds, now in the Institution's office the Motagua River and thence to the At-
in Guatemala City, must be studied. Prob- lantic. The valley floor is composed of tuff
ably of significance is the fact that the that was deposited as successive showers
white-on-red ware occurs only at hilltop of volcanic ash. The tufr filled the valley
sites. Another point is the fact that those near the city to depths of 1000 feet or
in the valleys all have several architectural more. It was also deposited on the hills
periods, whereas in most cases the hilltop but was almost immediately washed off
sites do not. The latter are characterized into the valleys. Eastward toward the
by much terracing, ball courts with well Motagua each valley had a filling of ash
marked end zones, and split stairways with successively finer in grain and shallower
balustrades. The mounds are usually in depth. As the height of the fill decreases
grouped about a plaza with one or more eastward, it appears that concurrently with
small platforms in the center. Ball courts the filling of the valleys, runoff took place
in the valley sites lack end zones. At pres- across the body of ash, so that there was
ent the two groups that appear most de- a stream grade on the top of the ash of
sirable to excavate are Chalchitan and about 4000 feet in 30 miles, or 13 feet to
Chutix Tiox: Chalchitan because of its the mile. In the Motagua Valley there
long occupation, its architectural and is a terrace of waterworn pumice frag-
ceramic sequence, its accessibility, and the ments that rises about 200 feet above the
availability of good labor at Aguacatan; present river grade. It seems to be the
Chutix Tiox because of the excellent river-laid equivalent of the tuff fillings of
preservation of buildings of various types the tributary valleys. One must suppose
and because it could conveniently be that enormous quantities of ash were car-
worked from a base at Sacapulas. Final ried by rainwash oft the slopes of the hills
choice, however, should be postponed until into the valleys and thence to the Motagua.
further reconnaissance of the highland Here the river transported most of the load
region has been carried out. into the sea, but was itself overloaded to
such an extent that it built up its grade
Soils and Climatic Chronology in and formed the tuff terrace.
Guatemala The origin of the ash showers is pre-
sumed to be in one or more of the great
volcanoes which fringe the southwestern
Dr. Kirk Bryan, professor of geology border of the Guatemala highlands. The
at Harvard University, spent two weeks tuff has not, however, been traced to any
DIVISION OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH
169
definite source. Toward the end of erup-
tion the rate of fall decreased and became
spasmodic. The upper measures of the
tuff sequence near Guatemala City are
distinctive. A typical section consists of the
following members:
Feet Inches
Soil, dark brown to black . . o 6—8
Subsoil, dark brown colum-
nar or blocky; in low
places, columnar black clay from 1 6
to 2 o
Disconformity, erosion of
shallow valley
Pumice tuff (upper sand or
arena) 3 0
Massive decomposed buff-
colored tuff (talpetate) . . 60
Pumice tuff (lower sand or
arena) 4 0
Decomposed buff -colored tuff
grading down into mas-
sive undecomposed tuff
{talpetate fino) from o 6
to 2 0
White to gray tuff many
feet
The talpetate fino is an old land surface
in which the previously deposited tuff was
decomposed and converted into a massive
yellow clayey layer of variable thickness.
Over this surface pumice tuff was de-
posited by fall from the air. The frag-
ments of pumice range up to half an inch
in diameter. The material is used as build-
ing sand, hence its local name arena. The
next layer is a decomposed tuff, very
massive and compact. It is obviously a
subsoil representing a long period of de-
composition under a climate wetter than
that of the present time. This compact
massive material is used in local building
as quarried blocks and as a constituent
of sun-dried brick. It is therefore well
known and is called talpetate, a word
presumably related to the Mexican tepetate.
The overlying pumice tuff is similar in
all respects to the lower pumice tuff.
These formations slope gently upward
and, in places, extend to the slopes leading
to the adjacent mountains. In particular,
the upper pumice tuff mantles steep moun-
tain slopes of older rocks along the Gua-
temala-Lake Atitlan highway as far as
Mixco. Near Guatemala City these three
formations are eroded in broad shallow
valleys, which drain into the deep bar-
rancas. One of these valleys extends from
northwest to southwest through the site of
Kaminaljuyu. At its lowest points it reaches
the talpetate fino. The surface soil is dark
brown to black, blocky silty clay, or clay.
Intensive cultivation by prehistoric and
modern people has disturbed the soil
nearly everywhere. Also there are numer-
ous borrow pits from which the prehistoric
people obtained material for pyramids and
other structures. Many of these pits were
back-filled with debris, and the area has
since been cultivated. It is thus difficult
to find truly natural conditions. Obviously,
however, the soil was developed only in
part by weathering of underlying material.
It is usually an unconformable blanket
over the underlying formations and has
been largely built up by the gradual fall
of ash from near-by volcanoes. The soil
processes operating on this continually in-
creasing layer have produced the deep
humus-bearing subsoil. In the lower areas,
where water has stood in the rainy season,
the subsoil is a columnar black clay. On
better-drained sites it is a blocky silty clay
and in places shows fragments of the un-
derlying pumice tuff or talpetate.
It appears that the existing climate, with
its strong dry season, produces a soil that
accumulates calcium carbonate in the sub-
soil. It is therefore a climate on the arid
side. There is a break in the sedimenta-
tion between the soil and subsoil and the
upper pumice tuff represented by the ero-
170
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
sion of the broad valley already referred
to. One must suppose that the talpetate,
which is an old subsoil of the ferric oxide-
aluminous type, was formed in a climate
wetter than that of the present. This
epoch, however, was far anterior to the
earliest known culture of the area. As
shown by the excavations of the Carnegie
Institution, the oldest pottery of the site,
when found in undisturbed areas, occurs
at the base of the soil just above the jointed
clay. In many localities the soil, subsoil,
and part of the underlying material —
arena or talpetate — has been excavated.
The back-fill may be 3 feet or more thick
and may contain pottery of any age. The
soil and subsoil appear to represent a con-
tinuous period of growth by accretion of
wind-borne volcanic dust and of soil forma-
tion under a pine-grass cover. The soil
phenomena of the remote past, as repre-
sented by the talpetate and talpetate fino,
record wetter conditions. Within the pe-
riod of known prehistoric occupation no
detectable change in climate is indicated
by the soils.
Hieroglyphic and Historical Research
s. g. morley
Dr. Morley left New Orleans for Merida,
Yucatan, Mexico, on November 7, 1944,
returning therefrom on May 3, 1945. He
spent the summer at Santa Fe, New
Mexico, his usual summer headquarters,
where Dr. E. L. Hewett, Director of the
School of American Research and the
Museum of New Mexico, very kindly
placed at his disposal office quarters in the
Palace of the Governors at Santa Fe, now
the Museum of New Mexico. He will
return to Yucatan at the beginning of
November.
Dr. Morley has devoted the year to two
principal research activities: preparation
of the Maya hieroglyphic dictionary, and
work on the Maya chronicles in the Books
of Chilam Balam.
For work on the hieroglyphic diction-
ary, a full-time draftsman, Mr. Isaac Es-
quiliano, of Merida, has been continuously
employed for the past three years, drawing
the individual glyphs of the Maya stone,
stucco, and wood inscriptions under Dr.
Morley's direction and supervision. Dur-
ing this period Mr. Esquiliano, a Mexican
of mixed Spanish and Maya descent, has
developed a very high degree of skill in
drawing the Maya glyphs.
At the beginning of this enormous task
it was decided to draw first all the glyphs
of known meaning, and later those of
unknown meaning. Further, in order to
facilitate accurate representations, it was
decided to concentrate on one glyph at a
time, drawing all known occurrences of
this particular glyph before proceeding to
another. In this way, in the case of par-
tially effaced and badly eroded glyphs,
the draftsman would have the benefit of
previous experience and familiarity with
better-preserved examples of the same
glyph.
The first section of the dictionary is thus
devoted to the Initial Series introducing
glyph, a highly important character in
the Maya inscriptions, which not only
stands at the head of most inscriptions
where it occurs, but whose principal
element indicates the name of the patron
deity of the Maya month in which the
accompanying date falls. This first section
is about finished, barring a few odd ex-
amples of this sign, chiefly in inscriptions
from Campeche.
The next eight sections of the dictionary
are being devoted to the different examples
of glyphs G and F of the Initial Series
and to the six different signs of the Sup-
plementary Series — glyphs E, D, C, X, B,
and A — all of which deal with the moon.
DIVISION OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH
171
Of these, the examples of glyphs E, D, C,
and X are also nearly completed.
The drawings of the different occur-
rences of glyph D have brought to light
important new variants and have made
possible a number of corrections in de-
cipherment of the corresponding moon
ages expressed by that character.
With the cumulative experience gained
in repeatedly drawing the same glyph, we
have been able to get more out of par-
tially effaced inscriptions than was for-
merly possible, and although only a begin-
ning has been made, the project may be
said to be off to a good start.
The Maya chronicles project deserves a
brief word of introduction. There have
been preserved in certain native Maya
manuscripts known as the Books of Chi-
lam Balam, which are written in the letters
of Spanish script but in the Maya lan-
guage, five chronicles or rescripts of Maya
preconquest history. These chronicles are
of varying degrees of merit, and there is
strong internal evidence that three of them
have been copied from a single source,
probably an ancient Maya historical manu-
script in the hieroglyphic writing, the
original of which Is now either lost or
destroyed.
These five chronicles contain practically
all that has survived on the documentary
side (i.e., as opposed to the stone, stucco,
and wood inscriptions) of ancient Maya
history. Laconic as the chronicles are, they
nevertheless present a fairly accurate pic-
ture with a solid chronological background
of the main events of Yucatan history
from the early fifth to the late seven-
teenth century; and, as primary historical
source material of the very highest im-
portance, they have long merited the ex-
haustive and critical study now being given
them by Dr. Morley and Dr. Alfredo Ba-
rrera Vasquez.
Dr. Barrera Vasquez, now working un-
der a grant from the Colegio de Mexico
but having formerly held both Guggen-
heim and Rockefeller fellowships, has been
collaborating with Dr. Morley on a de-
finitive translation of these Maya chron-
icles into both Spanish and English, and
on an interpretive study of their contents.
For the past decade, under the auspices
of the above agencies and others, Dr.
Barrera Vasquez has been devoting a
major portion of his time, first, to making
a reconstructed text, filling the lacunae
in one chronicle from another and includ-
ing all variant versions; and, second, to
translating the original Maya into Span-
ish. For the past two years he has spent a
month in Yucatan each spring working
with Dr. Morley on this investigation. The
Barrera Vasquez reconstructed Maya text
of the chronicles has been translated di-
rectly into English, which language, it has
been found, renders the original Maya
more exactly than does Spanish. Dr. Mor-
ley has written a commentary on the
chronicles, incorporating therein the re-
sults of his own epigraphic studies during
the past thirty years in so far as the latter
concern the course of ancient Maya his-
tory in the northern half of the Yucatan
Peninsula.
The history of Yucatan, as set forth in
the Maya chronicles, begins with the dis-
covery of the province of Ziyancaan Bak-
halal (the region around the modern Lake
Bacalar in southeastern Yucatan) by a
group of ancient Maya called the Itza,
probably proceeding from some Old Em-
pire site in what is now northeastern Peten,
Guatemala, in 9.0.0.0.0 8 Ahau 13 Ceh
of the Maya era, or a.d. 435, and closes
with the fall of Tayasal, the last Itza
capital, in central Peten, in a.d. 1697, more
than twelve and a half centuries of docu-
mented Maya history.
172
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
Hieroglyphic Research
J. E. S. Thompson
In the previous report a brief description
was given of a new approach to the prob-
lem of the decipherment of the Maya
hieroglyphs. This method, which involves
comparison of glyphic texts with the con-
tent of the Books of Chilam Balam, con-
tinues to yield interesting results.
In the various Books of Chilam Balam
occurs the expression u xocol haab ti la\in,
"the count of the year to the east," and
one may safely assume that similar phrases
involving the other world directions were
current in Yucatan in the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries. In the hieroglyphic
texts of the monuments, the four world
direction glyphs are frequently followed
by a glyph which consists of an element
previously identified as a symbol for count-
ing, and the sign for year. The whole
is surmounted by a well known superfix
of unknown meaning. There can be no
doubt that these pairs of glyphs mean "To
the east [north, west, or south] the count
of the year." The whole supplies a close
parallel to the Books of Chilam Balam save
that the world direction is given first,
not last.
A problem which has vexed Maya
archaeologists for some fifty years is that
of the meaning of the "spectacle glyph"
which is attached to month signs on occa-
sions which can be proved arithmetically
to fall the day before the first day of a
month. This sign has been generally read
as zero. There are two serious objections
to this reading. First, signs with a mean-
ing approximating that of zero are known,
but are never substituted for the spectacle
glyph. Secondly, the spectacle glyph is
combined with the winged Cauac (the
haab or year sign), which, if the interpre-
tation as zero were correct, could only
mean zero approximate years. There are
cases, however, where this glyph occurs
with dates which end 13 approximate
years. The interpretation is thus obviously
at fault.
In the Books of Chilam Balam one fre-
quently finds the phrases u cutal Pop, u
cutal Uo, etc., "the seating of Pop," "the
seating of Uo," etc., set opposite the first
day of each month. On page 7 of the
Chilam Balam of Tizimin is the expression
ti cutal ti tun, "at the seating of the ap-
proximate year." Interpretation of the
spectacle glyph as "the seating of" fulfills
all the demands of the various contexts,
and agrees with Maya phraseology. This
interpretation led to the identification of
two new glyphs, variants of the spectacle
glyph, which record whether the addition
of a distance number leads to the end of a
tun or merely to an odd day. The glyphs
must mean respectively "[leading] to the
seating of the tun" and "[leading] to the
seating of the day." More and more evi-
dence accumulates that the hieroglyphic
texts closely parallel the spoken word.
Little success has hitherto attended ef-
forts to interpret affixes, and variations in
those attached to glyphs of known mean-
ing have for the most part been ignored,
or dismissed as artistic variations. As an
example of slight variations in meaning
which they reflect, one might cite the three
common suffixes of period glyphs. The
geometric forms of the katun and tun
usually stand on three small circles when
these glyphs occur in Initial Series or as
period endings. When these glyphs (and
other period glyphs) are used as distance
numbers, the suffix takes the form of two
or three circles between two inverted cres-
cents. Thus, if one finds a period glyph
with this form of suffix, one knows that it
is part of a distance number. Rarely, the
simple suffix of three circles is retained,
and the suffix indicative of a distance
number is placed beneath it.
Robert Redfield and Associates
DIVISION OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH 7.73
A rare suffix, the "bundle" element, is glyphs has made some progress. Among
used with the katun and tun only to new glyphs recognized is a rare head
record anniversaries; that is to say, the variant of the introductory sign to the
completion of a number of tuns or katuns distance number, there being a very fine
from some important date that is not a example on Temple n, Copan. A section
tun ending. An example of this is on of the Dresden Codex has been found to
Lintel 3, Piedras Negras. The Initial Series treat of the burner period, prominent in
9. 15. 18.3. 13 is followed by the katun glyph the Books of Chilam Balam. Several new
with a "count" prefix and the bundle readings of dates have been made in addi-
suffix. This date is precisely one katun tion to those published in various papers
later than a date prominent at Piedras during the period covered by this report.
Negras. Mr. Thompson is now engaged in a
The suffix with three circles may be comprehensive survey of Maya epigraphy,
ornamental, or its meaning must be gen- The first volume of this study should be
eralized; the other two suffixes are indie- completed during 1946.
ative of the way the periods are being
used. There are somewhat similar dis- Social Anthropological Research
tinctions in the Books of Chilam Balam.
The Maya language has a great num-
ber of numerical classifiers, each object No notable single accomplishment
or group of objects having its classi- marked the advance made in social an-
fier. In English there are a few such thropological research of the Division
numerical classifiers, e.g. head of cattle, during the past year; no outstanding dis-
loaves of bread, sheets of paper, but the covery in the field is to be reported; and
system is with us vestigial. The Maya of no new unit of investigation was begun.
Yucatan used te as a numerical classifier The members of the group were engaged
inter alia with years and months. In the in terminal or transitional activities. Dr.
hieroglyphic texts there is a small prefix Redfield made a short visit to Yucatan
which is sometimes placed between the and to Guatemala; in Yucatan he reviewed
numeral and the period or month glyph, the circumstances that would attend a pro-
but which never occurs with day signs, posed restudy of Chan Kom, one of the
The fact that it sometimes appears as a Yucatecan communities studied a decade
suffix of head variants of numerals shows ago; and in Guatemala he carried forward,
that it is connected with the number, not in consultation with members of the staff
the period or month sign. It almost surely and with representatives of the new gov-
corresponds to te. This surmise is further ernment of the Republic, various pieces of
strengthened by the absence of the prefix business incidental to the Division's re-
from day signs, since in spoken Maya the search program in that country. Dr. Tax's
numbers with day names do not take this time was borrowed in large part by the Uni-
classifier. Its absence or presence seems to versity of Chicago; nevertheless, for Car-
depend on the space available. It is most negie Institution he brought nearer corn-
frequent with low coefficients, where its pletion a nontechnical book on the Indian
presence serves to prevent undue distor- culture of Panajachel. Sr. Antonio Gou-
tion of the accompanying glyph; it is al- baud concluded a period of special employ-
most unknown with high numbers. ment, and completed a monograph con-
The normal work of identification of taining the results of the study of diet in
jja CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
rural Guatemalan communities which he of east central Quintana Roo, Publication
carried on in the field in 1944 with the 559, 1945); publications on a town of
assistance of Sr. Juan Rosales and Sr. mixed population and marginal in char-
Agustin Pop. Sr. Alfonso Villa Rojas acter to village and city (The fol\ litera-
prepared for microfilm reproduction his ture of a Yucatecan town, Publication 456,
extensive notes on Tzeltal communities of Contribution 13, 1935, and Disease and its
Chiapas, and in June came to Chicago to treatment in Dzitas, Yucatan, Publication
write comparative monographs. The pub- 523, Contribution 32, 1940) ; and, in 1941,
lication, during the year, of Sr. Villa's book a summary and concluding volume ex-
The Maya of east central Quintana Roo pressing the more general conclusions of
provides the student with the last expected the study (The fol\ culture of Yucatan,
monograph resulting from the Yucatan University of Chicago Press),
project, the first of the two research pro- This project had the following principal
grams carried on by this group of workers, results. Sources of information on the
and so brings this first project to a close, present-day Yucatec Maya were provided
while the Guatemalan project is still in that exceed in both quantity and quality
progress. everything else on the subject that had
The brevity of this annual report pro- previously appeared or has since been' pub-
vides opportunity here to review what has lished. The ethnography of the region
been done during the past fifteen years, was assembled in a single synthesis, in
By 1930 the Institution had already for The fol\ culture of Yucatan. The student
many years been carrying on researches of Maya history was provided with a full
in Maya archaeology. In that year, there account of the present-day pagan cult,
was initiated a new program in which including texts of prayers. It was fairly
problems of the Maya area were to be well established that the culture of Quin-
attacked by specialists representing many tana Roo is a reintegration of elements of
kinds of scientific interest. Ethnology was custom both pagan and Christian, and it
included, and Dr. Redfield formed a plan was shown that processes of culture growth
to study the living people of Yucatan, which move toward consistency operate
Because the Maya of Yucatan are all much indifferently on European and on Indian
the same in language and in native custom, elements. From ethnographic facts almost
a project was proposed, and carried out, exclusively, a historical hypothesis was
to investigate four communities chosen to offered as to the course of development
represent different degrees of exposure to of conventional attitudes between racial
modern urban influence. The project was groups and status groups in the peninsula,
so conceived as to serve two interests : that For what was probably the first time, a
in the ethnography of the Maya, and that study of a regional American Indian field
in the effects of contact with modern civili- was (virtually) opened with a project
zation of simpler and more isolated socie- directed by concepts and questions of gen-
ties. The program was realized in every eral interest to students of society and of
particular except that a promised publica- social change and was carried through
tion on the city of Merida was not pro- to completion. Conceptions and hypoth-
duced. There were published: a mono- eses as to the natural association of cer-
graph on a peasant village (Chan Kom, tain characteristics of human living in
a Maya village, Publication 448, 1934) ; isolated folk societies, formed by earlier
another on a tribal community (The Maya writers, were restated and clarified, and
DIVISION OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH
175
the power of these ideas to guide the
acquisition of new knowledge was demon-
strated in terms of a large body of well
reported fact. A number of general propo-
sitions as to society and its changes were
enunciated and given some support from
this body of fact. Interdependence between
heterogeneity of population and the secu-
larization of life was demonstrated for this
case, and it was shown that in Yucatan
religion has tended to pass over into magic.
The role of sorcery in expressing the in-
security of a member of a disintegrated
society was strongly suggested. These are
some of the many conclusions of general
interest which were reached.
While the Yucatan project was still in
progress, the work of this group was ex-
tended into the western highlands of Gua-
temala, then into the adjoining highlands
of Chiapas, and finally into the eastern
highlands of Guatemala, so that all parts
of America occupied by Maya-speaking
peoples, save the Huaxtec area of north-
eastern Mexico, were included in the field
of study. In the development of the Gua-
temalan investigation, the principal part
has been played by Dr. Tax. Beginning
in 1934 with Santo Tomas Chichicaste-
nango, Dr. Tax, with or without asso-
ciates, studied Cakchiquel or Zutugil com-
munities on Lake Atitlan, and made
briefer studies of Chord, Pokomam, and
Mam communities in Guatemala, and of
Tzotzil communities in Chiapas. To
Alfonso Villa fell the task of making
studies, of long duration and intensity, of
the difficult Tzeltal Indians of Chiapas.
In 1942 Dr. John Gillin, of Duke Uni-
versity, became associated with the ethno-
logical program of the Institution, making
observations on Pokomam communities in
eastern Guatemala. His work there was
supplemented by that of Dr. Melvin M.
Tumin. Dr. Gillin extended his research
to a non-Maya people, the Xinca of Guaza-
capan, Guatemala.
The extraordinarily diverse local varia-
tions of culture in Guatemala made im-
possible any such single theme of investi-
gation as had been possible in the rela-
tively uniform Indian country of Yucatan.
Dr. Tax accordingly devised and put into
effect methods for representative sampling
of the area included, and for making
verifiable and comparable the reports of
the several investigators. In 1934 the
miinicipio was identified as the basic unit
of study, and principal types of municipios
were recognized. In succeeding years out-
lines were prepared to guide the junior
investigators; a survey of eastern Guate-
mala was made by Drs. Redfield and Tax
in which a schedule was worked out for
the quick reporting of certain information
according to municipios; the preparation
of community maps was systematized;
a method for comparing local cultures
quickly according to sample elements of
belief and custom was tested; and a project
for the preparation of field notes in more
or less uniform manner for microfilm re-
production and general distribution among
all research students of the area was put
into effect.
The problems guiding the later stages of
investigation were developed in the course
of the ethnographic exploration. These
problems are in part ethnological, in part
historical. Dr. Tax is determining the
distribution of the principal ethnographic
types among the Maya peoples, and is
bringing this descriptive classification into
comparison with linguistic classifications
offered by students of Maya languages.
Identification is being made of regions in
which certain elements of culture (calen-
dar, pagan fertility rituals, sorcery, and
nahualism) are strongly emphasized, as
compared with other areas in which these
elements are absent or unimportant. Prob-
176
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
lems of more general or sociological sig-
nificance are receiving great attention. The
conclusions reached in Yucatan as to the
interdependence of individualization and
secularization with loss of isolation and
homogeneity have been tested and revised
in the light of facts from Guatemala. The
west highland communities of Guatemala
have been recognized as providing an
exceptional and important societal type:
highly commercial and individualized so-
cieties with local cultures and with people
maintaining a primitive world view. The
lack of dependence of secularization upon
technological revolution has been brought
to the attention of those who have studied
secularization from the history of western
Europe alone. Dr. Tax has completed a
monograph in which for the first time the
economy of a nonliterate farming and
trading people has been reported with the
facts and figures of cost accounting. He
has also written monographs on other
aspects of the Indian culture of Panajachel,
and monographs by other investigators on
Zutugil, Pokomam, Tzotzil, and Tzeltal
communities are in preparation.
The studies described above have con-
tributed significantly to the development
of social anthropology in Mexico and in
Guatemala. It may be claimed that fifteen
years ago this sort of research was entirely
unrepresented in these two countries, that
it is now being effectively carried on in
both by their own citizens, and that the
work of the Carnegie Institution group
has been the chief instrument of this
change. Soon after its publication in Eng-
lish, The fol\ culture of Yucatan was
issued in Spanish translation; a Portuguese
edition is now under discussion. In 1942
Dr. Tax taught for a semester in the
National School of Anthropology of Mex-
ico, and then took to Chiapas a group of
Mexican students whom he trained in
field methods. Certain of these students
then continued field research without
direct guidance. In 1943 Alfonso Villa
taught in the School, and he too super-
vised the work of Mexican students in the
field. Villa himself had been brought to
the United States in 1933 to study anthro-
pology at the University of Chicago. He
was followed by Antonio Goubaud of
Guatemala. Later Juan Rosales, whose
gifts as a field investigator had been dis-
covered by Dr. Manuel Andrade, was
also brought to the United States for train-
ing; after returning to Guatemala he was
sent by the government of that country
to the School in Mexico for thorough
preparation as an anthropologist.
The Division's work in social anthro-
pology has included many activities mar-
ginal to the main lines of investigation,
and has drawn within its program many
enterprises carried on under auspices other
than those of Carnegie Institution. In 1939
Villa participated in a study of the Taras-
can Indian carried on for the Mexican
government. The work of Sr. Julio de la
Fuente in Oaxaca was done partly under
the influence of the Carnegie group, and
in 1 943-1 944 he came to Chicago to write
under its guidance. In 1944 and 1945 the
Institution carried out a study of diet of
rural Guatemalans; the results will be pub-
lished by the government of Guatemala.
The students of Drs. Redfield and Tax
at the University of Chicago have written
monographs on subjects of Middle Ameri-
can ethnology and social anthropology;
these papers are in substance contributions
to the program of the Institution; they
include works on the following topics:
the mayordomia, the concept of the evil
eye, collective and cooperative labor, god-
parenthood and related institutions, the
relations between Indians and Ladinos.
Two fellows of the Social Science Re-
search Council have carried on field re-
search in the Maya area under direction
DIVISION OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH
177
of Drs. Redfield, Tax, and Tumin. There
have been edited and prepared for publica-
tion half a dozen manuscripts on Middle
American ethnology written by persons
outside the staff of the Institution. Two
of these may especially be mentioned:
Charles Wisdom's The Chorti Indians of
Guatemala (University of Chicago Press,
1940), and Oliver La Farge's Santa Eulalia
(forthcoming). Finally, it may be men-
tioned that the very considerable expan-
sion of the program of research on the
living Maya has been accomplished with-
out corresponding increase in the budget
provided by the Institution. The work has
been aided by contributions from other
sources, including the Viking Fund, the
Rockefeller Foundation, the University of
Chicago, Duke University, the Social Sci-
ence Research Council, the National Insti-
tute of Anthropology and History of
Mexico, and the government of the Mexi-
can state of Chiapas.
History of the Maya Area
F. V. Scholes, R. L. Roys, E. B. Adams
During the past year additional manu-
script sources have been examined and
extracted in preparation for studies on the
colonial history of Yucatan. A brief re-
view of certain data of interest to workers
in other branches of Maya research will
be made at this time.
The survival of native religion in post-
conquest times, concerning which other
materials have been summarized in pre-
vious reports, is further illustrated by docu-
ments relating to the visita of Yucatan
made in 1583 by Dr. Diego Garcia de Pala-
cio of the Audiencia of Mexico. In a letter
to the Crown dated at the Villa de Valla-
dolid December 26, 1583 (AGI, Mexico,
leg. 70), Palacio stated that the prac-
tice of idolatry was widespread through-
out the entire Valladolid district. At
Tzama and Pole on the east coast and
also in the towns of San Miguel and
Santa Maria on Cozumel Island, all the
Indians "without exception" were said to
be idolaters. At Tzama there had been a
"temple of idols" where the Indians gath-
ered to celebrate "festivals, dances, and
other ceremonies as in ancient times."
We surmise that this place was simply
the popolna, defined in the Motul diction-
ary as the "casa de comunidad," where
certain dances were taught. In such case,
the Indians no doubt had regular temples
in the bush, as was true on Cozumel
Island (see Roys, Scholes, and Adams,
Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. 523, Contr. 30,
p. 27). This "temple" at Tzama had now-
been burned, presumably by order of Pa-
lacio, and all the more than five hundred
idols had been smashed and cast into
the sea.
Palacio goes on to state that the common
people guilty of idolatry had been given
mild punishments, but the caciques, native
priests, "and the maestros who made the
statues {estatuas) and figures" had been
arrested and would receive more severe
punishment; "because in view of the bold-
ness and excess with which they have lived
in this sin, it is necessary, in order that
henceforth mercy should not give them
reason for greater obstinacy, as apparently
has been the case up to the present time."
The reference to maestros (masters, teach-
ers, artisans) who made the idols is of
some interest. The word estatuas usually
seems to mean wooden idols, and Landa
gives an account of the making of such
figures. Palacio's letter and a supplemen-
tary report refer, however, only to clay
idols, so in this case the estatuas were
apparently of this kind.
The prevalence of idolatry on the east
coast and Cozumel is not surprising, since
the towns of this region were located at
some distance from the nearest mission
15
178
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
centers. Palacio's letter states, however,
that in towns situated only one, two, or
three leagues from the Villa de Valla-
dolid similar conditions prevailed. On one
journey outside the villa he had collected
1 160 idols, in addition to many others that,
were destroyed, and he had punished more
than 600 idolaters. He had also banished
from this area certain "dogmatizers, priests,
and maestros" of these idolaters.
A supplementary report (Valladolid, 12
diciembre, 1583; in AGI, Mexico, leg. 70)
describes some of these 1160 "quicines,"
or idols, that had been gathered up. Some
were said to be as large as children three,
four, and five years old. Others were "fig-
ures of men with emblems (divisas) of
animals on their heads, and others with
miters and tiaras and other headdresses of
men and women according to ancient
custom, which the said Indians were ac-
customed to wear ... in their sacrifices,
festivals, and rites when they performed
their idolatry."
Figures of men with "emblems of ani-
mals" on their heads are familiar in the
Maya codices and on the monuments.
Some of the animal headdresses have been
thought to be carved wooden helmets.
Clay figures of this kind were probably
gods, including deified men. The "miters"
suggest Mexican tradition, and figures
with such characteristics may have repre-
sented deified lineage ancestors, old in-
vaders (?). The significance of "tiaras"
in the case of gods is not clear. Gem-
studded bands seem to be found on both
gods and warlike men at Chichen Itza:
on caryatids, "chac-mools," and relief fig-
ures. The first Spaniards found gold head-
bands in chests in the temples of northern
Yucatan and obtained others in Tabasco.
We are inclined to associate them princi-
pally with deified heroes or lineage an-
cestors, but they may have a wider scope.
The report describing these idols also
mentions figures of "leones," "tigres," and
dogs, and "temples {cues) of different
plans and forms." The pumas and jaguars
of architectural sculptures evidently repre-
sent the military orders, but here we
presumably have actual gods. The "leones"
may have represented the war god, Cit-
chac-coh ("father-red-puma"). The Book
of Chilam Balam of Chumayel mentions
a Chac-bolay-balam (chac-bolay means
"tigre bermejo y bravo") and a Chac-bolay
also figures in the Tizimin manuscript.
We find no mention of dog gods in the
colonial literature, Maya or Spanish. Fig-
ures of dogs are familiar, however, in the
codices, and in the Dresden 7a a dog ap-
pears in a long row of deities. Dogs were
also a favorite sacrifice, and Landa tells
of offerings of clay dogs with bread on
their backs. The figures mentioned in this
1583 report may have been something like
votive offerings, if they were not idols of
a dog god.
Despite the punitive measures imposed
by Dr. Palacio, idolatry continued to exist
in the Valladolid area and other parts of
the province (see data recorded in pre-
vious reports) . A letter of Bishop Vazquez
de Mercado dated May 2, 1606 (AGI,
Mexico, leg. 72) records that "Indian
idolaters were daily being discovered in
various towns of this diocese." During a
visitation made by the bishop in the Valla-
dolid district "there were discovered and
punished more than 80 Indians who, in
gangs (cuadrillas) , assembled in different
pueblos to perform the said idolatries."
Moreover, a beneficed priest in that area
had recently sent a report of 56 other
idolaters whom he had found in the towns
of his benefice. They had clay idols "de
malisimas figuras . . . que a unos llamaban
Dios Padre, a otros Dios Hijo y a otros
Dios Espiritu Santo y Santa Maria y a otros
muchos nombres de santos y santas como
a ellos les parece, teniendo los dichos sus
DIVISION OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH
179
sacerdotes que hacian las ceremonias y posed, even in the case of the caciques and
sahumerios cuando todos se juntaban a native priests. It is well known, of course,
idolatrar." that Landa used stern measures during the
This reference to clay idols called God investigation of 1562. Although the latter
the Father, God the Son, God the Holy investigation put an end to the practice of
Spirit, Holy Mary, and other names of human sacrifice, the severe punishments
saints is reminiscent of a report by Fran- and torture employed by Landa not only
cisco Hernandez in 1545 (see Las Casas, caused serious unrest in Yucatan, but also
Apologetica historia, ch. 123; Saville, Mus. aroused unfavorable criticism in high
Amer. Indian, Indian Notes and Mono- Spanish quarters. Consequently, in later
graphs, vol. 9, no. 3) . Hernandez reported years the clergy tried another tactic, em-
that God the Father was Icona (Itzamna) ; ploying public or private admonitions or
the Son was Bacab, son of a virgin named some form of mild punishment in deal-
Chibirias (Ix-chebel-yax, according to ing with the idolaters. As already noted,
Seler) ; the Holy Spirit was Ekchuuah. Dr. Palacio proposed to deal more harshly
Cf. Tozzer, Landa s Relation (Cambridge, with the caciques and native priests than
1941), Syllabus, page 310. Tozzer also dis- with ordinary offenders, but in general
cusses a report of 1913 by Bartolome del the local authorities apparently tried to
Granado Baeza which records saint names cope with the situation without resort to
for three of the Pauahtuns. The bishop's stern measures. But this method had
letter of 1606 indicates that the naming of failed, for, as the bishop said, Indians
certain gods by the names of saints started who had been punished on other occasions
early, and it continues to the present day had continued their idolatrous practices,
(see Gann, Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Pub. 64, "the cause of which, I understand, is the
pp. 46-47). Deities with saint names ap- mild punishment they have received for
pear, however, to have retained their pagan this great offense against God." "It ap-
functions and characteristics. The bishop, pears to me therefore that it would be
of course, was well advised in condemning suitable for your Majesty to order . . .
the practice. that the leaders and priests, especially those
The bishop's letter of 1606 was written guilty of second offenses, should be given
in response to an inquiry from the Au- the most severe penalty."
diencia of Mexico, which in turn was The second cause noted by the bishop
prompted by a royal cedula of April 24, was the lack of compact Indian settle-
1605, asking for information concerning ments, "because in all this diocese there
the practice of idolatry in Yucatan "and is no well formed town; on the contrary,
why it is more prevalent in that province each household lives by itself scattered
than in others." The bishop stated that it among the bush in such a way that a town
was not because of lack of instruction of 100 citizens may occupy a district of
in the elements of Christian faith and half a league because of the scattering of
doctrine, for he had personally exam- the houses." This statement probably ex-
ined some of the idolaters and they had aggerated the situation, but it indicates,
given adequate answers to all questions of nevertheless, that the policy of congregat-
faith. It was his opinion that there were ing the Indians into compact towns insti-
two major causes for the continued prac- tuted by Tomas Lopez in 1552 had not
tice of the native religion. The first was been effectively carried out, or that during
the mild punishment that had been im- the later decades of the sixteenth century
i8o
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
there had been considerable laxity in regard
to town organization and control. To
remedy the situation the bishop recom-
mended that effective measures should be
taken to reassemble the Indians "in streets
and squares surrounding the church, so
that in this way there would not be such
freedom for their debaucheries and other
sins, and so that they will be better in-
doctrinated."
The definitorio (governing council) of
the Franciscans also made a statement on
the subject which supported the bishop's
views. The Franciscans, however, added
another point of vital importance: the
fact that the Indians of settled towns in
northern Yucatan maintained contacts
with the "gentiles" of the interior, with
whom they carried on trade, selling them
such articles as salt, knives, axes, machetes,
and similar goods. "As a result of this
trade and commerce they learn the idolatry
and ancient rites which they may have
forgotten as a result of evangelical teach-
ing." The Franciscans might also have
added that the bush country of the interior
was also a convenient place of refuge for
groups of Indians who, for one reason or
another, wished to escape Spanish control,
civil or religious. Throughout the entire
colonial period the Spanish authorities
sought to bring the interior under effective
control, but in the main they never achieved
more than temporary success. The bush
and forests of central and southern Yuca-
tan were always a haven for Indians who
wished to escape oppression, or to live
according to the old native customs.
During the past year Mr. Roys has con-
tinued and nearly completed the transcrip-
tion of a Maya manuscript known as the
Ritual of the Bacabs. This document of
237 pages consists mostly of medical incan-
tations, although some directions for treat-
ment are also included. The last page
is written on the back of a printed In-
dulgence dated in 1779. Although much
of the manuscript is not difficult to read,
on many pages there are water stains or
the writing has faded, so it has been neces-
sary to make a preliminary study of the
more legible parts in order to complete
the transcription.
In spite of the late date of the manu-
script, these incantations are practically
free from European influence. With the
exception of an occasional "Amen" and
very rare mention of the Spanish Dios, no
reference to the Christian religion has yet
been found. "The four gods, the four
Bacabs," who were prominent deities, are
often invoked, and it is from these that
the manuscript was given its title by its
discoverer, William Gates. The Pauah-
tuns, believed to be wind gods, are barely
mentioned. As might be expected, the
Maya goddess of medicine also plays a
prominent part; but she is usually cited
in a twofold phase, as Chacal ("the red")
Ix Chel, and Sacal ("the white") Ix
Chel. Only once have we noted an Ekel
("black") or a Kanal ("yellow") Ix Chel.
The distinction may indicate a reference
to the four world quarters, to which these
colors were ascribed.
A number of other deities are invoked
or cited. We find the thirteen sky gods
known as Oxlahun-ti-ku, and the nine
deities of the underworld, Bolon-ti-ku,
which are occasionally mentioned in the
Books of Chilam Balam, but the others
appear only rarely in colonial Maya
literature.
Several times there is an invocation to
the little-known Colop-u-uich-ku. The
name strongly suggests a sun god, and
in the Vienna dictionary he is described
as "the principal god . . . from whom
they said all things proceeded and who
was incorporeal, hence they made no
image of him." We also find a mention
DIVISION OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH
181
of Kin-ich-kak-mo ("sun-eyed fire par-
rot"), a more familiar deity associated
with the sun.
The sky god Itzamna, usually con-
sidered the head of the Maya pantheon,
also appears in these incantations. We
read of "the home of the father (or lord?)
of the sun, Chac Ahau Itzamna." This
name could be translated as "great (or
red?) lord Itzamna." There is an obscure
reference to "the thigh of Hun Itzamna,"
and a Kanal ("yellow") Itzamna is also
cited. Associated with Itzamna are the
iguana {huh) and another lizard (itzam).
Frequent accessories, apparently in the
ceremonies which accompanied these in-
cantations, were a green human figure of
wood (yax uinicil te, or che) and a similar
one of stone {yax uinicil tun). In the
treatment of a sore foot, we infer that
changing the dressing is symbolized by
what is called changing the bed covers of
these figures. These coverings are alleged
to be the tails of the quetzal (yaxum)
and the macaw. In this manner, states
the healer, "I remove the great causer
of pain."
The disease is often personified and is
informed that 4 Ahau, or sometimes 1
Ahau, was the day of its birth. The healer
addresses it with authority and threatens
it. To one disease he says: "Thus I throw
you down. I am your mother, I am your
father; I cast you into the midst of the
sea." To another he claims a similar
relationship and condemns it "to the evils
of the underworld."
Many of these incantations have a gen-
uine poetic quality and abound in graceful
figures of speech. In treating various fever-
ish skin eruptions the healer states that he
is cooling the throbbing pain with his
red, white, and black fountains and with
cenotes, forest ponds, and hailstones of
these colors.
Some of the incantations are ordinary
magic, such as charming a scorpion or
cooling water while it is on the fire. The
most interesting and poetical is that of the
birth of the spider, which has been pub-
lished by J. E. S. Thompson (Carnegie
Inst. Wash. Pub. 509, Contr. 29). Here a
green wooden spider and one of stone ap-
pear to take the place of the human figures
in the other incantations.
The language of this manuscript is
often obscure, and a complete translation
will be very difficult.
In view of J. E. S. Thompson's approach
to the problems of hieroglyphic writing by
seeking parallels between such texts and
certain passages in the colonial Maya litera-
ture written in European script (Year
Book No. 43, pp. 172-173), we have
searched the latter for chronological ex-
pressions or figures of speech which might
easily lend themselves to pictorial repre-
sentation. Their precise significance is
not always clear, since they have come
down to us mostly in manuscripts of the
eighteenth century. By this time the copy-
ists, who occasionally interpolated their
own comments, had forgotten or become
confused over some of the details of the
old calendar system. We even find the
katun explained as being a period of
twenty-four years. The following excerpts
have been selected from a series of yearly
prophecies covering twenty years, which
are recorded in the Books of Chilam Balam
of Tizimin and Mani. They are given
here as examples of phrases which we
might expect to find expressed in hiero-
glyphic writing, but it does not, of course,
necessarily follow that such will prove to
be the case.
These prophecies begin with a state-
ment of "the taking of lac of Katun 5
Ahau." The lac today is a shallow bowl,
and the term has also been defined as a
clay idol, but we infer it was an effigy
bowl, possibly an incense burner. There
x82 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
are occasional references to the "burden" dently a play on the day name Oc, which
or "charge" (cucli) of the katun. In one can also mean "foot." In the Codex Perez,
of these the number 5, the coefficient of however, the "pacing off' of the katun
the day for which the katun is named, appears to begin on the day Oc, which
is said to be its burden; and we are re- falls just ten days before the end of the
minded of a full-figure Initial Series in- katun.
scription at Copan, although here it is Mr. Thompson has noted a danger in
not the coefficient which is represented this approach because of the uncertainty
as being the burden. as to the language of the people who
One of the year bearers is "the day of carved the inscriptions. A large propor-
setting in order the bird (ch'ich') of the tion, though by no means all, are found
katun." Since we find elsewhere the "bird" in areas where either Yucatecan Maya or
of the day closely associated with its one of the Choloid languages was spoken
augury, the term probably has the same at the time of the conquest. The latter
meaning for the katun. comprise Chontal, Choi, and Chorti, and
For the tenth year there is a reference it has been shown that these three are
to the fan and bouquet of the ruler, pre- hardly more than dialects of the same
sumably the god presiding over the katun, language, which, indeed, the sixteenth-
who "points his finger at the day he takes century Spaniards considered them to be
over his government." He is set up at (Thompson, Amer. Anthropologist, n. s.,
his cup {Inch), on his throne or dais vol. 9, pp. 584-603; Scholes and Roys,
(dzam), his mat (pop), and his seat Acalan-Tixchel, in preparation).
{\anche) ; and this establishment of the Philologists have established a close re-
lord of the katun was very probably a lationship between Yucatecan Maya and
chronological ceremonial. Choloid, and it has long been known that
For the year in which the last hotun for a person who knew one, the other
begins we find a reference to the "binding was not very difficult to learn. Never-
of the burden of the katun." Here, instead theless, how close the resemblance was for
of the coefficient, the burden appears to practical purposes is a matter of some con-
symbolize the destiny of the katun, which sequence. It is certainly closer than would
consists mostly of various misfortunes, appear from the comparative word lists
This meaning is confirmed by the Motul that have been published, and to form
dictionary. In the following year the bur- some idea of this a comparison has been
den is bound again, and the "rulers of the made between Becerra's large vocabulary
land" are said to be blindfolded. Whether of Palenque Choi (Anales del Museo
earthly rulers or gods are meant is a little Nacional de Arqueologia, Historia y Etno-
uncertain. Elsewhere in these Maya manu- grafia, quinta epoca, vol. 2, pp. 249-278)
scripts the blindfolding of a deity appears and the Yucatecan Maya. Many words
to symbolize the loss of his power. Here are almost identical and have the same
it seems to indicate the approaching end meaning in both languages. In other cases
of the katun, an event which concerned the words are the same, but they have a
both gods and men. slightly different meaning. Becerra's bush
At the end of these prophecies we are is defined as an ordinary gourd (calabaza),
told that on a day 13 Oc "the katun is whereas the Maya bux (pronounced the
paced off' (u che\ oc \atun). This is evi- same) in northern Yucatan was a small
DIVISION OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH
183
wild variety. There are also numerous
instances where a Maya would understand
a Choi term in spite of its difference from
the word used in northern Yucatan. In
Maya a skull is tze\, and although the
Choi equivalent is bu\el jol, it resembles
the Maya baac ("bone") and hoi ("head").
Similarly, the Choi word for heel, yit\o\,
would be understood by a Maya as mean-
ing the bottom of the leg or foot. There
are certain sound shifts, but it seems un-
likely that they would cause much diffi-
culty. For consonants the two most fre-
quent shifts are those in which Maya can
("serpent") and che ("tree") correspond
to the Choloid chart and te or tie.
A comparison of the first 400 words of
Becerra's Choi vocabulary with their var-
ious Maya equivalents or near equivalents
suggests strongly that a Yucatecan would
either understand or have an approximately
correct idea of the meaning of 50 to 60 per
cent of them. Available Choloid texts are
few and brief except for the long Acalan
Chontal narrative, which contains a very
considerable variety of subject matter. Here
the sentence structure is very similar to that
of Yucatecan Maya. The tentative con-
clusion of this inquiry is that whatever its
origin, Maya hieroglyphic writing was
probably adequate for the use of both
these linguistic groups.
United States History
Leo F. Stock and John }. Meng
It was expected that this report would
announce the completion of the manu-
script of volume VI of the Proceedings
and debates of the British Parliaments
respecting North America. The amount
of material bearing upon the Seven Years'
War, however, is so voluminous and the
necessary annotations are proportionately
so time-consuming that there still remain
three or four months of work before the
volume will be ready for printing. The
questions at issue during this significant
period, which preceded and which in large
measure created the immediate conditions
leading to the American Revolution, will
make this volume an important one.
This may be the final volume of the
series to be sponsored by the Institution.
After thirty-five years of service, Dr.
Stock's formal connection with the Divi-
sion of Historical Research terminated
July 31, 1945. In view of the extensive
use so far made of the series in graduate
schools and by writers in the field of
colonial history, and because of the amount
of unprinted sources that have been col-
lected for the period ahead, the editor will
continue to give as much time to this work
as the pursuit of postretirement interests
will permit.
Dr. Stock also intends to complete the
orderly arrangement of the files of the
former Department of Historical Research.
Their value was illustrated in the corre-
spondence between Viscount Bryce and
Dr. J. Franklin Jameson which was printed
in the January 1945 issue of the American
Historical Review.
As in previous years, Dr. Stock has re-
plied, for the Division, to many inquiries
of historical nature, and has rendered other
aid to students who came to Washington.
Volumes III and IV of the Guide to
?naterials for American history in the
libraries and archives of Paris are now
complete in manuscript for anticipated
publication when present printing and
binding difficulties have been eased. Vol-
ume V, the final one of the series, deals
with the colonial archives and is now in
preparation. The work is being done by
John J. Meng under the general direction
of Waldo G. Leland.
Comforting information relating in part
to the future usefulness of the Guide was
184
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
received during April 1945 from M. Abel
Doysie in Paris. M. Doysie, one of the
collaborators in the preparation of the pub-
lication, wrote concerning the Foreign Of-
fice archives: "The building was burnt,
but the archives are safe though not avail-
able yet." Doysie himself is once more
engaged in historical research, after several
months in a German concentration camp
and the destruction of his home by
bombing.
History of Science
George Sarton
Introduction to the history of science.
Most of Dr. Sarton's time was devoted
to the final revision of the manuscript of
volume III and to proofreading. Thus far
421 galleys have been read, more than a
third of the total but less than half. So
large and complex is this work that at
least another year will be needed to com-
plete the proofreading and indexing.
Editing of Isis. The publication of Isis
has been considerably slowed up, because
the Harvard University Printing Office is
short of labor and is obliged to do the
University work first. Two numbers only
have appeared (nos. 100 and 101), and
volume 35 (1944) is not yet completed,
the last part (no. 102) being now in page
proof. Numbers 100 and 101 include 12
main articles, 17 shorter notes, 23 reviews,
830 bibliographic items, and are illustrated
with 4 plates and 29 figures in text. Since
its foundation in 1913 Isis has never been
smaller. Editorial work has been con-
tinued, however, by Dr. Sarton and Dr.
Pogo, and a large amount of manuscript
is ready for publication as soon as circum-
stances permit.
From 191 3 to 1940 Isis had been printed
in Belgium. Word has been received from
the St. Catherine Press in Bruges that the
stock of Isis and Osiris has been preserved
in spite of the fact that other presses in the
neighborhood have been destroyed. Vol-
ume 32 of Isis and volumes 8 and 9 of
Osiris, which were being printed in Bruges
at the time of the German invasion, will
be published as soon as possible. This will
not be before 1946 or perhaps 1947.
Ancient science down to Epicuros. Four
chapters are completed, dealing respec-
tively with the dawn of science, Egypt,
Mesopotamia, and the Aegean area.
Publications
Margaret W. Harrison
Of the three major publications reported
in press at the time of last year's review,
wartime difficulties in the printing in-
dustry have permitted the publication of
only one, Alfonso Villa's The Maya of
east central Quintana Roo (Publication
559), released in May 1945. Beginning
with a brief survey of the history of
Quintana Roo and ending with a critical
bibliography of the War of the Castes
and a discussion of historical sources by
Howard F. Cline, the book describes the
Indian mode of life in the most isolated
of the four Yucatecan Maya communities
studied by ethnologists and sociologists
of the Institution from 1930 to 1936. A
second community was reported on by
Robert Redfield and Sr. Villa in Chan
Kom, a Maya village (Publication 448),
issued in 1934; and a third by Dr. and
Mrs. Redfield in Disease and its treatment
in Dzitas, Yucatan (Contribution 32 in
Publication 523), issued in 1940. The final
results of the study became available in Dr.
Redfield 's The fol\ culture of Yucatan,
published by the University of Chicago
Press in 1941. The report on the re-
maining community, Merida, is not yet
completed.
Miss ProskouriakofTs Album of Maya
architecture (Publication 558) has pro-
gressed as far as page proof of the text.
DIVISION OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH
185
The gravure illustrations, the main fea- counts of the Indian tribes on the Pacific
ture of the publication, have been printed littoral of Guatemala and a comparative
for several months. study of the sculpture found in that area.
Textiles of highland Guatemala (Publi- To the second volume of Notes on
cation 567), by Lila M. O'Neale, professor Middle American Archaeology and Eth-
of decorative art at the University of Cali- nology have been added eighteen numbers
fornia, Berkeley, is ready for binding. The during the year. Half of these, listed in
text and gravure illustrations are printed; the bibliography at the end of this report,
the line cuts are undergoing final revision, have come from members of the staff, the
Under the joint authorship of France V. Misses Proskouriakofr" and Shepard and
Scholes and Ralph L. Roys, the manu- Messrs. Kidder, Morley, Roys, Smith, and
script of Acalan-Tixchel: a contribution Thompson. Specialists outside the Institu-
to the history and ethnography of south- tion contributed the remainder: Archaeo-
western Campeche (Publication 560) has logical finds near Douglas, British Hon-
nearly reached completion. It is expected duras (no. 40), by A. Hamilton Anderson
that the text will be ready for the printer and Herbert J. Cook; Ixtle weaving at
by early fall of 1945. Chiquilistlan , Jalisco (no. 42) and Worked
Excavations at Kaminaljuyu, Guatemala gourds from Jalisco (no. 43), by Isabel T.
(Publication 561), by A. V. Kidder, J. D. Kelly; The graphic style of the Tlalhuica
Jennings, and E. M. Shook, with techno- (no. 44), by R. H. Barlow; The Venus
logical notes by Anna O. Shepard, is now calendar of the Aztec (no. 46), by R. C. E.
in galley proof. This book is a detailed Long; Costumes and wedding customs at
account of the excavation of two mounds, Mixco, Guatemala (no. 48), by Lilly de
in each of which were found several super- Jongh Osborne; Moon age tables (no. 50),
imposed structures and richly stocked by Lawrence Roys; A second Tlaloc gold
tombs. The grave furniture, fully de- plaque from Guatemala (no. 51), by Karl-
scribed and illustrated, contained a large Heinz Nottebohm; and Roc\ paintings
number of important objects which served at Texcalpintado, Morelos, Mexico (no.
to establish chronological relations between 52), by M. A. Espejo.
the local Guatemala highland culture and Mrs. Harrison has in preparation the
several other major cultural developments compilation of a dictionary of terms ap-
in the Maya area and in central Mexico, plicable to Middle American archaeology,
J. Eric S. Thompson has finished the covering architecture, ceramics, artifacts,
manuscript of An archaeological recon- and sculpture. The terms are confined to
naissance in the Cotzumalhuapa region, English words and foreign words taken
Escuintla, Guatemala, which will form over into ordinary archaeological usage. A
Contribution 44, the first paper in vol- preliminary list of tentative definitions will
ume 9 of Contributions to American be distributed in mimeographed form to
Anthropology and History. This paper specialists in this field for corrections and
contains an analysis of the historical ac- additions before final publication.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
July i, 1944 — June 30, 1945
Bloom, L. B. See Scholes, France V. Kidder, A. V. Certain pottery vessels from
Harrison, Margaret W. The writing of Ameri- Copan. Carnegie Inst. Wash., Div. Historical
can archaeology. Amer. Antiquity, vol. 10, Research, Notes on Middle Amer. Archaeol.
PP- 33!-339 (x945)- and Ethnol., no. 36 (1944).
i86
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
Kidder, A. V., and Anna O. Shepard. Stucco
decoration of early Guatemala pottery. Car-
negie Inst. Wash., Div. Historical Research,
Notes on Middle Amer. Archaeol. and
Ethnol., no. 35 (1944).
Morley, Sylvanus G. Combinations of glyphs
G and F in the supplementary series. Car-
negie Inst. Wash., Div. Historical Research,
Notes on Middle Amer. Archaeol. and
Ethnol., no. 49 (1945).
Proskouriakoff, Tatiana. An inscription on a
jade probably carved at Piedras Negras.
Carnegie Inst. Wash., Div. Historical Re-
search, Notes on Middle Amer. Archaeol.
and Ethnol., no. 47 (1944).
Redfield, Robert. The ethnological problem. In
New perspectives on peace, edited by George
B. de Huszar (Charles R. Walgreen Foun-
dation Lectures), pp. 60-84 (1944).
La raza en la naturaleza humana y
social. Rev. mexicana de sociologia, vol. 6,
pp. 163-171 (i944)-
Roys, Ralph L. The Vienna dictionary. Car-
negie Inst. Wash., Div. Historical Research,
Notes on Middle Amer. Archaeol. and Eth-
nol., no. 41 (1944).
Sarton, George. Vindication of Father Hell.
Isis, vol. 35, pp. 97-106 (1944).
■ Orientation of the mihrab in mosques.
Isis, vol. 35, p. 176 (1944).
A Chinese gun of 1372. Isis, vol. 35,
p. 177 (1944)-
Jacob Sala of Somerset, 181 3? Isis, vol.
35, P- 177 (i944)-
Fishing with otters. Isis, vol. 35, p. 178
(1944).
Beccaria, 1738-94. Essays in the history
of science presented to Prof. Arturo Casti-
glioni (suppt. to Bull. Hist. Med., no. 3, pp.
283-308, 1944).
Lagrange's personality, 1736-1813. Proc.
Amer. Philos. Soc, vol. 88, pp. 457-496
(1944).
Scripta manent. Isis, vol. 35, pp. 201-205
(1944),
Sixty-sixth critical bibliography (to July
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Scholes, France V. Documents: (I) Letter of
the bishops of Mexico and Oaxaca, 1537,
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Shepard, Anna O. See Kidder, A. V.
Smith, Robert E. Archaeological specimens
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Historical Research, Notes on Middle Amer.
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Stock, Leo F. Some Bryce-Jameson corre-
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Tax, Sol. Anthropology and administration.
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Review of A primitive Mexican econ-
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on cultural relations in New Mexico, by
Lyle Saunders. Library Quart., vol. 15, pp.
174-176 (1945).
Thompson, J. E. S. Jottings on inscriptions at
Copan. Carnegie Inst. Wash., Div. His-
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The dating of seven monuments at
Piedras Negras. Carnegie Inst. Wash., Div.
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Variant methods of date recording in
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559 (i945)-
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557. Contributions to Embryology, volume
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INDEX
(Figures in italic type refer to pages in the Report of the President;
Aboriginal American History, Section of, ix
studies in, see archaeology
Adams, Eleanor B., ix
studies in history of the Maya area, 166, 177-183
Adams, Leason H., vii
report of Director of Geophysical Laboratory, 19-20
Adams, Walter S., vii, 8, 9, 4
report of Director of Mount Wilson Observatory,
3-18
studies in stellar spectroscopy, 11, 13
publications by, 17, 55
report of Committee on Coordination of Cosmic-Ray
Investigations, 59-60
administration, offices of, x
Agassiz, Alexander, vi, xii
Allen, F., 62
anatomy, see embryology
Anderson, A. Hamilton, 185
Anderson, Edgar, 107
Andrade, Manuel, 165, 176
Andrews, H. L., publication by, 55
anthropology, see social anthropology
Arbogast, R., 116
archaeology, studies in, //, 163-173, 185
astronomy, vii, xi
Committee on, v
studies in, 8-g, g-'i o, 3-18
astrophysics, see astronomy
atomic physics, studies in, 23, 33-36
Auditing Committee, v, xix, xx, xxii
Auditor, xix, xxii
Report of, xxvi-xxxiv
Auger, P., publication by, 63
Ault, J. P., 10, 52, 57, 187, 188
B
Baade, Walter, vii, 4
stellar and nebular investigations, 10, 14, 15, 16
publications by, 17
Babcock, Harold D., vii, 4
studies in solar physics, 4, 8
publications by, 17
bacterial resistance, see gene
Bailey, D. K., publication by, 62
Baldwin, George J., vi
Balling, Eva, 61
Barbour, Thomas, v
Barlow, R. H., 185
Barrera Vasquez, Alfredo, 164, 171
Bartelmez, George W., publication by, 100, 187
Baty, Wilton E., 119
Bauer, Ailene J., x
Bauer, Louis A., vii, 24
Beach, Alice S., 4
Bell, James F., v, xix
Benedict, Francis G., viii, 9, 149
Berkner, Lloyd V., vii
Bernstein, A., studies in terrestrial magnetism, 24, 25
publication by, 55
Biesecker, Earle B., x
Biesele, John J., viii
studies on mouse leukemia, 105, 134-139
Billings, John S., vi, xii, xiii
biochemical investigations, 10, 65, 66-71. See also
cyclotron; embryology; genetics; nutrition
biological sciences, viii, xi
Committee on, v
studies in, 65—161. See also cyclotron
Bjerknes, V., ix
Blakeslee, Albert F., viii, ix
Bliss, Robert Woods, v, xix, xx, xxii
Bloch, I., 6^
Bloom, L. B., publication by, 185, 186
Boggs, Stanley H., 165
Botanical Research, Department of, viii
botany, see plant biology
Bowen, Ira S., vii, 9
Bowles, Edward L., ix
Boyce, Joseph C, ix
Bradford, Lindsay, v, xix
Brady, Frederick J., 34, 36
publications by, 55
Brainerd, G. W., 163, 164
Bramhall, E. H., publication by, 55
Brayton, Ada M., 4
publication by, 17
Bronikovsky, Natalia, publication by, 57, 187
Brookings, Robert S., vi
Brown, William L., 107
Bryan, Kirk, physiographical investigations, 165, 168-
170
Bryson, V., publication by, 146
Burd, Sylvia, 4
Burlew, John S., vii •
Burns, Robert K., viii, 100
publications by, 100, 187
Bursar, Office of the, x
Burwell, Cora G., 4
Bush, Vannevar, v, x, xix, xxii
report of the President, /-//
publications by, 188
Buynitzky, S. J., studies in atomic physics, 33, 35
Cadwalader, John L., vi, xii
Callaway, Samuel, x
Campbell, William W., vi
Carnegie, Andrew, xi, xiii
Carnegie, the, 10, 23, 24, 26, 29, 36, 38, 52-53, 57,
187, 188
Carnegie Corporation of New York, xi, 6, 95, 96
Carpenter, Thorne M., viii, 9
report of Director of Nutrition Laboratory, 149—156
studies in nutrition, 154-155, 156
publications by, 154, 156
Carty, John J., vi
Chamberlain, Robert S., ix, 164
Chancy, Ralph W., ix
studies in paleobotany, 66, 86-87
publication by, 87
Cheltenham Magnetic Observatory, 22, 24, 30, 37, 39,
40, 51, 59> 60
189
190
INDEX
chemistry, see biochemical investigations; geophysics
chemotherapy, see cyclotron
Chernosky, Edwin J., vii
observatory work (terrestrial magnetism), 48
chlorellin, see biochemical investigations
Christie, William H., vii, 4
Clarke, E. T., publication by, 62
Clausen, Jens C, viii, 134
studies in experimental taxonomy, 71-83
publication by, 87, 187
Coffeen, Mary F., 4
Cole, Whitefoord R., vi
College (Alaska) Observatory, 23, 24, 25, 26, 30, 32,
38, 39> 49-51, 53
Compton, A. H., ix
Connor, Elizabeth, 4
publication by, 17
Cook, Herbert J., 185
Cooper, K. W., 157
Corner, George W., viii
report of Director of Department of Embryology,
89-101
studies in embryology, 96—97, 99, 100
publications by, 99, 100, 187
Coropatchinsky, V., viii
Corp, S. O., 26, 52
Cosmic-Ray Investigations, report of Committee on
Coordination of, 59-63
cosmic relations, studies on, 22, 25, 59—63. See also
observatory work (terrestrial magnetism)
Cowie, Dean B., vii
studies in atomic physics, 33, 34, 36
publications by, 55
Crippen, M., 115
Crow, E. G., studies in terrestrial magnetism, 24
Crow, R. M., 38, 52, 53
Cutting, Winsor, 70
cyclotron, 10, 23, 33-36, 53
cytogenetics: of Drosophila, 105, 1 21-127
of maize, 107, 108-110
of Newospora, 106-107, no— 112
cytology, see cytogenetics; experimental taxonomy;
gene; polyploidy
D
Davenport, Charles B., viii
publications by, 146
Davids, N., studies in terrestrial magnetism, 24, 25
publications by, 55, 57
Davidson, Harriet, polyploidy investigations, 11 3-1 15
Day, Arthur L., vii
de Allende, Ines L. C, publication by, 187
Delano, Frederic A., v, xix, xx, xxii
Delbriick, Max, 107
Demerec, Milislav, viii, //
report of Director of Department of Genetics, 103—
147
studies on the gene, 103, 105-106, 115-121
publications by, 146, 147
Demerec, Zlata, 119
desert investigations, 66, 83-85
Desert Laboratory, viii, 83, 84
Dobzhansky, Th., ix
studies on genetic structure of natural populations,
83, 106, 127-134
publications by, 146, 147
Dodge, Cleveland H., vi, xii
Dodge, William E., vi
Dorf, Erling, 66, 87
Doysie, Abel, 184
Drinker, Cecil K., 154
publication by, 154, 156
Drosophila, see cytogenetics; gene; genetic structure of
natural populations; Morgan, T. H.
Duffin, R. J., 53
publications by, 55
Duncan, John C, 4, 14
Dunham, Theodore, Jr., vii, 4
Eakin, Robert E., 34, 36
ecology, viii. See also desert investigations; experi-
mental taxonomy
Edmonds, Harry Marcus Weston, 24
electricity, terrestrial, see terrestrial electricity
Embryology, Department of, viii, 10, 89—101, 152
report of Director of Department of, 89-101
embryology, studies in, 10-11, 89—101
endocrine studies, 103—104, 139-146
England, Joseph L., vii
Ennis, C. C, publication by, 57, 187
Espejo, M. A., 185
Esquiliano, Isaac, 170
ethnology, see social anthropology
Eugenics Record Office, viii
Executive Committee, v, xi, xix, xx
Report of the, xxi— xxv
Experimental Evolution, Station for, viii
experimental taxonomy, studies in, 10, 65—66, 71-83
Fano, Ugo, viii, 103, 107
publication by, 146
Fassett, Frederick G., Jr., x
Fenner, Charles P., vi
Ferguson, Homer L., v, xix, xx, xxii
Finance Committee, v, xix, xx, xxi, xxii
Fleming, John A., vii
report of Director of Department of Terrestrial
Magnetism, 21—57
studies in terrestrial magnetism, 24, 31, 39, 52
publications by, 55, 56, 57, 187
report of Committee on Coordination of Cosmic-
Ray Investigations, 59-60
Flexner, Louis B., viii
physiochemical studies (embryology), 89, 99
Flexner, Simon, vi
Forbes, W. Cameron, v, xix, xxii
Forbush, Scott E., vii, 52
cosmic-ray investigations, 59, 60
Frew, William N., vi, xii
G
Gage, Lyman J., vi, xii
Gasic, G., studies on mouse leukemia, 105, 134-139
Gay, Helen, studies on cytogenetics of Drosophila,
121-127
publication by, 146, 147
Gellhorn, Alfred, 99
publication by, 100
gene, studies on, //, 105-106, 115-121, 157-160.
See also cytology
INDEX
191
genetic structure of natural populations, studies on,
106, 127-134
Genetics, Department of, viii, //, 103-147, 152
report of Director of Department of, 103-147
genetics, studies in, 103-147, 157-160. See also ex-
perimental taxonomy
geology, studies in, 168-170. See also geophysics;
paleobotany
geomagnetism, see terrestrial magnetism
Geophysical Laboratory, vii, 10, 19-20
report of Director of, 19-20
geophysics, studies in, 10, 19-20. See also terrestrial
electricity; terrestrial magnetism
Gibson, Ralph E., vii
Giesecke, Albert A., Jr., vii
observatory work (terrestrial magnetism), 48
Gifford, Walter S., v, xix, xx, xxii
Gilbert, Cass, vi
Gilbert, Walter M., x
Gillett, Frederick H., vi
Gillman, Joseph, 96
Gilman, Daniel Coit, vi, xii, xiii
Gish, Oliver H., vii
studies in terrestrial electricity, 26, 27, 52
publications by, 56
Goranson, Roy W., vii
Gordon, Myron, 107
Goubaud, Antonio, 165, 173, 176
Graham, Herbert W., 52
publications by, 57, 187
grasses, range, see experimental taxonomy
Green, George K., vii, 33
Green, J. W., studies in terrestrial magnetism, 24, 26,
53, 55
Greig, Joseph W., vii
Gucker, Frank T., ix
H
Hafstad, Lawrence R., vii, 33
Hale, George E., vii, 3, 17
Hallman, Lois F., 36
Halpern, A. M., 164
Hamermesh, B., 62
Hardin, Garrett J., viii
biochemical investigations, 66—71
publication by, 87
Harradon, H. D., 26, 54
publications by, 56, 57
Harrison, Margaret W., 166, 184-185
publication by, 185
Harrison, Ross G., ix
Hartman, Carl G., 96, 152
publications by, 100, 187
Hartung, Marguerite, 79
Hartzler, A. J., 62
Hay, John, vi, xii, xiii
Hellmer, Alice M., publication by, 146
Hendrix, W. C, studies in terrestrial magnetism, 24,
26, 53, 55
publication by, 187
Herrick, Myron T., vi
Hertig, Arthur T., ix
studies in human embryology, 94-95, 96
publications by, 100, 187
Hess, Victor F., ix
studies on atmospheric electricity, 26, 27
cosmic-ray investigations, 59, 60-61
Heuser, Chester H., viii, 100
studies in embryology, 89, 94, 96
publication by, 100, 187
Hewitt, Abram S., vi
Heydenburg, Norman P., vii, 33
Hickox, Joseph O., vii, 4
studies in solar physics, 6
publication by, 17
hieroglyphic research, 166, 170-173
Hiesey, William M., viii
studies in experimental taxonomy, 71-83
publication by, 87, 187
Higginson, Henry L., vi, xii
Hill, C. H., 36
historical research, ix, xi
Committee on, v
studies in, 163-186
Historical Research, Department of, ix, 163, 183
Historical Research, Division of, ix, //, 163—186
report of Chairman of Division of, 163—186
history of the Maya area, studies in, 166, 177—183
History of Science, Section of the, ix
history of science, studies in, 166, 184
Hitchcock, Ethan A., vi, xii
Hitchcock, Henry, vi
Hluchan, S., 32, 48
Hoge, Edison, vii, 4
studies in solar physics, 6
Holl, Robert, 103
Hollaender, Alexander, 103, 117, 122, 123
publications by, 146, 147
Hollander, W. F., endocrine studies, 104, 139-146
publications by, 147
Hoover, Herbert, v, xix
Hopkins, Hoyt S., 139
hormones, see endocrine studies
Howe, William Wirt, vi, xii
Huancayo Magnetic Observatory, 22, 23, 24, 29, 30,
31, 32, 38, 39, 44-49, 53, 59, 60
Hubble, Edwin P., vii, 4
Humason, Milton L., vii, 4
nebular investigations, 16
publication by, 17
Hutchinson, Charles L., vi, xii
I
Ingerson, Earl, vii
studies in geophysics, 19-20
publication by, 19, 20
Investment Office, x
ionosphere, studies on, 3, 23, 30-33. See also ob-
servatory work (terrestrial magnetism)
J
Jameson, J. Franklin, ix, 163, 183
Jeans, lames, 4
Jennings, J. D., 166, 185
Jessup, Walter A., vi
Jewett, Frank B., v, xix
Johnson, Ellis A., vii
Johnson, P. A., studies in atomic physics, 33, 35
Johnson, Thomas H., ix
lohnston, Henry F., vii
studies in terrestrial magnetism, 24, 26, 38, 39, 40
publications by, 56
Johnston, I. M., 85
192
INDEX
Jones, Mark W., vii
observatory work (terrestrial magnetism), 32, 48
publication by, 56
Joslin, Elliott P., 150
Joy, Alfred H., vii, 4
studies in stellar spectroscopy, 11, 12, 13
publications by, 17
Joyner, Mary C, see Seares, Mary Joyner
studies in stellar photometry, 4, 9
publications by, 17, 18
K
Kaufmann, Berwind P., viii
studies on cytogenetics of Drosophila, 103, 105,
121— 127
publications by, 147
Keck, David D., viii
studies in experimental taxonomy, 71-83
publications by, 87, 187
Kelly, Isabel T., 185
Kennedy, Ruby Jo Reeves, 107
Kidder, Alfred V., ix, //
report of Chairman of Division of Historical Re-
search, 163—186
studies in archaeology, 165—166, 185
publications by, 185, 186
King, Arthur S., 16
publication by, 17
King, Helen Dean, 98
publication by, 101
King, Robert B., vii, 4
laboratory investigations (Mount Wilson), 13
Kingshill, Konrad L., publication by, 63
Korff, S. A., ix
cosmic-ray investigations, 59, 61-62
publications by, 56, 62
Kracek, Frank C, vii
Krumbein, A., 62
Ksanda, C. J., studies in atomic physics, 33, 35, 36
Kupferberg, K., 62
Laanes, T., studies on mouse leukemia, 134—139
Lahr, E. L., endocrine studies, 139—146
publications by, 147
La Motte, Robert Smith, publication by, 87
land magnetic survey, 36—38
Lange, Isabelle, studies in terrestrial magnetism, 24,
25, 26
cosmic-ray investigations, 59, 60
Langley, Samuel P., vi, xii
Lawrence, Ernest O., v
Lawrence, William E., 83
publication by, 87
Lawton, Alfred H., 34, 36
publications by, 55, 56
LeClerc, Germaine, polyploidy investigations, 11 3-1 15
Ledig, Paul G., vii
observatory work (terrestrial magnetism), 32, 48,
60
publication by, 56
Lee, George, 153
Lee, Robert C., 153, 154
publication by, 154, 156
Leland, Waldo G., 183
leukemia, see mouse leukemia
Lewis, Lloyd G., publications by, 63
Lewis, Margaret R., viii
tumor studies, 91, 97-99
publications by, 101
Lewis, Warren H., tumor studies, 91
Lindbergh, Charles A., vi
Lindsay, William, vi, xii
Lingebach, J. Stanley, x
Locanthi, Dorothy D., 4
Lodge, Henry Cabot, vi
LoefHer, Orville H., vii
Long, R. C. E., 185
Loomis, Alfred L., v, xix
Low, Seth, vi, xii
Lowe, E. A., ix
Lowen, A. Louise, 4
lunar and planetary investigations, 8-9
Luria, S. E., studies on the gene, 11 5-1 21
publication by, 147
M
McClintock, Barbara, viii
cytogenetic studies of maize and Neurospora, 106-
107, 108-112
McCormick, N., 115
McDonald, Margaret R., viii
endocrine studies, 104, 139-146
publications by, 147
MacDowell, Edwin C, viii
studies on mouse leukemia, 103, 104-105, 134-139
publication by, 147
McKee, Edwin D., publication by, 187
McLaughlin, Andrew C, ix
MacLeod, Grace, 152
McNish, Alvin G., vii
studies in terrestrial magnetism, 24, 38, 54
publication by, 56
MacVeagh, Wayne, vi, xii
magnetism, see atomic physics; solar research; ter-
restrial magnetism
maize, cytogenetic studies of, 107, 1 08-1 10
Mall, Franklin P., viii
Mallery, T. D., 84
Manning, Winston M., viii
Marchetti, Andrew A., publication by, 101, 187
Marinelli, L. D., 118
Martin, Emmett V., viii
Matthews, Mabel A., 107
Mayr, Ernst, 108, 133
publications by, 146, 147
Mellon, Andrew J., vi
Mendel, L. B., 152
Mendousse, J. S., studies in atomic physics, 33, 35
Meng, John J., studies in United States history, 183-
184
Menkin, M. F., 95
publication by, 101
Merrell, Margaret, 99
publication by, 100, 101
Merriam, John Campbell, vi, xix
Merrill, Paul W., vii, 4
studies in stellar spectroscopy, 12, 13, 14
publication by, 17
Merwin, Herbert E., vii
metabolism, see nutrition; endocrine studies
meteorology, see observatory work (terrestrial mag-
netism)
INDEX
193
Miller, R. A., 103
Miller, Roswell, v, xix
Miller, W. C, 5, 13
Millikan, Robert A., ix
Mills, Darius O., vi, xii
Milner, Harold W., viii
biochemical investigations, 66—71
Minkowski, Rudolph, vii, 4
stellar and nebular investigations, 10, 14
Mitchell, S. A., 4
Mitchell, S. Weir, vi, xii, xiii
Moberg, E. G., 52
publication by, 57
Monroe, Parker, x
Montague, Andrew J., vi
moon, see lunar investigations
Moore, Charlotte E., see Sitterly, Mrs. B. W.
publication by, 17
Morey, George W., vii
Morgan, Henry S., v, xix, xx
Morgan, Lilian V., studies in genetics, 157-160
Morgan, T. H., ix
studies in genetics, 157—160
Morley, Sylvanus G., ix
studies in archaeology, 164, 1 70-1 71
publication by, 185, 186
Morris, Ann Axtell, 163
Morris, Earl H., ix
studies in archaeology, 163, 166
Morrow, William W., vi, xii
Mount Wilson Observatory, vii, 8, g, 10, 3—18, 31
Report of Director of, 3-18
mouse leukemia, studies on, 104-105, 134-139
Mudd, Seeley G., v, xix
Mulders, Elizabeth Sternberg, 4
studies in solar physics, 6
publications by, 17, 18
N
nebulae and novae, studies on, 11, 13, 14-16
Ness, A. T., 34
publications by 55, 56
Neurospora, cytogenetic studies on, 106—107, no— 112
Newhouse, Walter H., ix
Nichols, Richard F. F., x
Nicholson, Seth B., vii, 4
solar and planetary investigations, 6, 9
publications by, 18
Nottebohm, Karl -Heinz, 185
novae and nebulae, studies on, 11, 13, 14—16
nuclear physics, see atomic physics
nutrition, studies in, 9, 149—156, 160— 161
Nutrition Laboratory, viii, g, 149—156
report of Director of, 149-156
O
Oakberg, E., 116
observatories, cooperating (terrestrial magnetism and
cosmic-ray investigations), 22, 23, 24, 25, 26,
29, 30, 31, 37, 39, 40, 51-52, 59
observatory work (terrestrial magnetism), 23-24, 29,
30, 38-52. See also Cheltenham Magnetic Ob-
servatory; College (Alaska) Observatory; Huan-
cayo Magnetic Observatory; Tucson Magnetic
Observatory; Watheroo Magnetic Observatory
oceanography, see Carnegie, the
Ogden, G. E., publications by, 55, 56
O'Neale, Lila M., 185
Osborn, Elburt F., vii
Osborn, William Church, vi
Osborne, Lilly de Jongh, 185
Padget, Dorcas H., 90
paleobotany, studies in, 66, 86-87
Parkes, A., 44
Parkinson, W. D., 37, 43
Parkinson, Wilfred C, vii
observatory work (terrestrial magnetism), 32, 37,
43, 52
publication by, 56
Parmelee, James, vi
Parsons, Wm. Barclay, vi
Pate, R. S., 53
Paton, Stewart, vi
penicillin, see gene
Pepper, George W., vi
Pershing, John J., vi
Pettit, Edison, vii, 4
solar, lunar, and stellar investigations, 6, 7, 8, 10,
11
publications by, 18
physics, see atomic physics; cosmic-ray investigations-
geophysics; terrestrial magnetism
physiology, see embryology; nutrition
Piggot, Charles S., vii
publication by, 57, 187
planetary and lunar investigations, 8—9
Plant Biology, Division of, viii, 10, 65-87, 134
report of Chairman of Division of, 65-87
plant biology, studies in, 65-87. See also maize;
Neurospora; polyploidy investigations
Plant Physiology, Laboratory for, viii ,
Pogo, Alexander, ix
studies in history of science, 184
Pollock, Harry E. D., ix, 164
polyploidy investigations, 106-107, 11 3-1 15
Pop, Agustin, 174
Posnjak, Eugene, vii
Post-Columbian American History, Section of, ix
studies in, see history of the Maya area; United
States history
Potter, James S., 103, 138
publication by, 147
Prentis, Henning W., Jr., v, xix
President, v, x, xi, xix, xxi
Office of the, x
Report of the, /-//
publications by, 188
presidents, former, vi
Pritchett, Henry S., vi
Proskouriakoff, Tatiana, ix
studies in archaeology, 166, 184
publication by, 185, 186
Publications and Public Relations, Office of, x, xi, 9
R
Rackeman, Francis M., 154
publication by, 154, 156'
RafTel, Sidney, 70
Rankin, Robert M., 99
publication by, 100, 101
i94
INDEX
Rauch, V. M., 144
publications by, 147
Redfield, Robert, ix
studies in social anthropology, 165, 173—177
publications by, 186
Reines, F., 62
research associates, ix
studies by, 4, 9, 10, 14, 16, 26, 27, 59-63, 66,
86-87, 89, 93, 94-95, 96, 106, 127-134, 157-
161, 165, 173-177
Rcsser, Charles E., publication by, 187
retirements, 8, 9, 66, 103, 163
Revelle, Roger R., publication by, 57, 187
Reynolds, Samuel R. M., viii, 89
Richardson, F. B., 164
Richardson, Robert S., vii, 4
studies in solar physics, 6, 7
publications by, 18
Richmond, Myrtle L., 4
planetary investigations, 9
publication by, 18
Riddle, Oscar, 103-104, 152
endocrine studies, 104, 139—146
publications by, 147
Ritzman, Ernest G., 154
publication by, 154, 156
Roberts, Howard S., vii
Roberts, Richard B., vii, 33
Rock, John, studies in human embryology, 94-96
publications by, 100, 101, 187
Rogozinski, A., publication by, 63
Rooney, William J., vii
studies in terrestrial electricity, 26, 27, 29
publication by, 56
Root, Elihu, vi, xii, xiii
Root, Elihu, Jr., v, xix, xx, xxii
Root, Howard F., 154, 156
publications by, 154, 156
Rosales, Juan de Dios, 165, 174, 176
Rosenv/ald, Julius, vi
Roys, Lawrence, 185
Roys, Ralph L., ix
studies in history of the Maya area, 166, 177-183,
185
publication by, 185, 186
Ruppert, Karl, ix, 164
Russell, Henry Norris, ix, 4
studies in stellar spectroscopy, 4
Ryerson, Martin A., vi
Sanford, Roscoe F., vii, 4
studies in stellar spectroscopy, 11, 12, 13
publications by, 18
Sansome, Eva R., studies on the gene, 103, 117
publications by, 146, 147
Sapsford, H. B., publication by, 56
Sarton, George, ix
studies in history of science, 166, 184
publications by, 186
Schairer, John F., vii
Schein, Marcel, cosmic -ray investigations, 59, 62—63
publications by, 63
Schiller, Joseph, viii
Scholes, France V., ix
studies in history of the Maya area, 166, 177-183,
l8.5
publications by, 186
Schooley, J. P., publications by, 147
Schultz, Jack, 106, 108, 119
Scott, Walter E., vii
studies in terrestrial magnetism, 24, 26, 38, 39, 40
publications by, 56, 57
Seares, Frederick H., ix, 4
studies in stellar photometry, 4, 9, 14
publications by, 18
Seares, Mary Joyner, 4. See Joyner, Mary C.
Seaton, Stuart L., vii
studies in terrestrial magnetism, 26, 32, 50, 52
publication by, 187
Shaeffer, A. C, publication by, 55, 57
Shapley, A. H., studies in terrestrial magnetism, 24,
33
Shepard, Anna O., ix
studies in archaeology, 166, 185
publication by, 185, 186
Shepherd, Earnest S., vii, 52
Shepley, Henry R., v, xix, xx, xxii
Sherman, H. C, ix
studies in nutrition, 152, 160— 161
Sherman, Kenneth L., vii
studies in terrestrial magnetism and electricity, 24,
26, 27, 40
Shook, Edwin M., ix
studies in archaeology, 164, 165, 166, 185
Shorr, Ephraim, publication by, 187
Shreve, Forrest, viii
desert investigations, 66, 83—85
Silverman, Leslie, 154
publication by, 154, 156
Sitterly, Mrs. B. W., 4, 8. See Moore, Charlotte E.
Smith, A. Ledyard, ix
studies in archaeology, 165, 166-168
Smith, G. C, endocrine studies, 139-146
publications by, 147
Smith, James H. C, viii
biochemical investigations, 66—71
publication by, 87
Smith, R. E., 34, 36
Smith, Robert E., ix
studies in archaeology, 164, 165
publication by, 185, 186
Smith, Theobald, vi
Snyder, E. J., 26
publication by, 57
social anthropology, studies in, 165, 173-177
sociology, see social anthropology
solar research, 10, 6-8. See also cosmic relations; ter-
restrial magnetism
Soule, F. M., 52
publication by, 57
Spear, Cyrus J., 36
spectroscopy, see astronomy
Spoehr, Herman A., viii, 10, 134
report of Chairman of Division of Plant Biology,
.65-g7
biochemical investigations, 66—71
publication by, 87
Spooner, John C, vi, xii
stars, see stellar investigations
Stebbins, G. L., Jr., 83
Stebbins, Joel, ix, 4
studies in stellar photometry, 4, 10, 16
publications by, 18
Steele, J. M., 34
Steiner, William F., vii
INDEX
195
stellar investigations, 9-14. See also nebulae and
novae
Stephens, S. G., viii, 107
Stillwell, Louis R., Jr., 103
Stock, Leo F., ix
studies in United States history, 163, 166, 183-184
publications by, 186
Storey, William Benson, vi
Stotz, Elmer, 154, 156
publication by, 154, 156
Strain, Harold H., viii
biochemical investigations, 66-71
Streeter, George L., viii, ix, 100, 152
studies in embryology, 89, 93, 96
publication by, 101, 187
Streisinger, G., publication by, 146, 147
Stromberg, Gustaf, vii, 4
publication by, 18
Stromsvik, Gustav, ix, 164
Strong, Richard P., v, xix
Stroud, William G., Jr., 62
publication by, 63
Sturtevant, Alfred H., studies in genetics, 157-160
sun, see solar research
Sverdrup, H. U., publication by, 57, 187
Swift, Dorothy R., x
Swings, P., 4, 10, 13, 16
Dublications by, 17, 18
Tabin, Julius, publication by, 63
Taft, Charles P., v, xix
Taft, William H., vi
Tan, C. C., 108
Tax, Sol, ix
studies in social anthropology, 165, 173, 175, 176,
177
publications by, 186
taxonomy, see experimental taxonomy; desert in-
vestigations
Taylor, J. H., publication by, 57
Taylor, M. J., studies on mouse leukemia, 134-139
publication by, 147
Tejeda, Antonio, 165
Tejeda, Cesar, 165, 166
terrestrial electricity, studies in, 10, 22—23, 26-30.
See also observatory work (terrestrial magnetism)
Terrestrial Magnetism, Department of, vii, 3, 10,
2i-57» 59, 60
report of Director of Department of, 21-57
terrestrial magnetism, studies in, 21-22, 24-26. See
also cosmic relations; ionosphere; land magnetic
survey; observatory work (terrestrial magnetism);
solar research; Terrestrial Magnetism, Depart-
ment of
terrestrial sciences, vii, xi
Committee on, v
studies in, 21-63. See also geology; paleobotany
Thayer, William S., vi
Thompson, J. Eric S., ix
studies in archaeology, 166, 172-173, 181, 182, 185
publications by, 185, 186
Torreson, Oscar W., vii
studies in terrestrial electricity, 26, 27, 38, 52, 53
Trippe, Juan T., v, xix
Trustees, Board of, v, xi, xix, xxi, xxii, 3, 4
Abstract of Minutes of, xix-xx
committees of, v
former, vi
Tucson Magnetic Observatory, 23, 24, 29, 30, 51
tumor studies, 97-99. See also mouse leukemia
Tunell, George, vii
Tuttle, O. F., publication by, 19, 20
Tuve, Merle A., vii, 33
200-inch telescope, 8, 3
U
United States History, Section of, ix
United States history, studies in, 163, 166, 183-184
Urry, William D., vii
V
Vaillant, George Clapp, 163
van Dijke, Suzanne, 5
van Maanen, Adriaan, vii, 4
stellar investigations, 9
publication by, 18
Vestine, Ernest H., vii
studies in terrestrial magnetism, 24, 25, 26, 40, 53
publications by, 57
Villa Rojas, Alfonso, studies in social anthropology,
165, 174, 175, 176
publication by, 184, 186, 187
volcano studies, 10, 19, 27-28, 66, 86-87
W
Wadsworth, James W., v, xix, xx, xxii
Wait, George R., vii
studies in terrestrial electricity, 26, 27, 28, 29, 38, 52
publication by, 57
Walcott, Charles D., vi, xii, xiii
Walcott, Frederic C, v, xix, xx, xxii
Walcott, Henry P., vi
Wallis, W. F., studies in terrestrial magnetism, 24, 26
Warmke, Harry E., viii, 104
studies on the gene, 103, 104, 117
polyploidy investigations, 103, 106, 113— 115
publications by, 147
Watheroo Magnetic Observatory, 23, 24, 29, 30, 32,
37, 38, 39, 40-44, 53
Weed, Lewis H., v, xix, xx, xxii
Welch, William H., vi
Wells, Harry W., vii
studies in terrestrial magnetism, 24, 31, 32, 53
Wenner, F., publication by, 57
White, Andrew D., vi, xii
White, Edward D., vi
White, Henry, vi
Whitford, A. E., 4, 10, 16
publication by, 18
Wickersham, George W., vi
Wiggins, Ira L., 84
publications by, 87
Wilde, Walter S., viii
Wilson, Elsie A., 153, 154, 155-156
publication by, 155, 156
Wilson, Karl M., publication by, 101, 187
196
INDEX
Wilson, Olin C, vii, 4
Wilson, Ralph E., vii, 4
studies in stellar spectroscopy, 1 1
publication by, 18
Witkin, Evelyn Maisel, 106, 116, 117
Wolfenstein, Lincoln, publication by, 6$
Woodward, Robert Simpson, vi
Wright, Carroll D., vi, xii, xiii
Wright, F. E., report of Committee on Coordination
of Cosmic-Ray Investigations, 59-60
publication by, 55, 57
Wright, Sewall, 130
Z
Zies, Emanuel G., vii
Zimmer, E., publication by, 146, 147
Zimmer, M. L., studies in terrestrial magnetism, 24
zoology, see embryology; genetics
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